# The Netwide Assembler: NASM

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## Chapter 9: Mixing 16 and 32 Bit Code

This chapter tries to cover some of the issues, largely related to unusual forms of addressing and jump instructions, encountered when writing operating system code such as protected-mode initialisation routines, which require code that operates in mixed segment sizes, such as code in a 16-bit segment trying to modify data in a 32-bit one, or jumps between different-size segments.

### 9.1 Mixed-Size Jumps

The most common form of mixed-size instruction is the one used when writing a 32-bit OS: having done your setup in 16-bit mode, such as loading the kernel, you then have to boot it by switching into protected mode and jumping to the 32-bit kernel start address. In a fully 32-bit OS, this tends to be the only mixed-size instruction you need, since everything before it can be done in pure 16-bit code, and everything after it can be pure 32-bit.

This jump must specify a 48-bit far address, since the target segment is a 32-bit one. However, it must be assembled in a 16-bit segment, so just coding, for example,

              jmp 0x1234:0x56789ABC  ; wrong!

will not work, since the offset part of the address will be truncated to `0x9ABC` and the jump will be an ordinary 16-bit far one.

The Linux kernel setup code gets round the inability of `as86` to generate the required instruction by coding it manually, using `DB` instructions. NASM can go one better than that, by actually generating the right instruction itself. Here's how to do it right:

              jmp dword 0x1234:0x56789ABC  ; right

The `DWORD` prefix (strictly speaking, it should come after the colon, since it is declaring the offset field to be a doubleword; but NASM will accept either form, since both are unambiguous) forces the offset part to be treated as far, in the assumption that you are deliberately writing a jump from a 16-bit segment to a 32-bit one.

You can do the reverse operation, jumping from a 32-bit segment to a 16-bit one, by means of the `WORD` prefix:

              jmp word 0x8765:0x4321 ; 32 to 16 bit

If the `WORD` prefix is specified in 16-bit mode, or the `DWORD` prefix in 32-bit mode, they will be ignored, since each is explicitly forcing NASM into a mode it was in anyway.

### 9.2 Addressing Between Different-Size Segments

If your OS is mixed 16 and 32-bit, or if you are writing a DOS extender, you are likely to have to deal with some 16-bit segments and some 32-bit ones. At some point, you will probably end up writing code in a 16-bit segment which has to access data in a 32-bit segment, or vice versa.

If the data you are trying to access in a 32-bit segment lies within the first 64K of the segment, you may be able to get away with using an ordinary 16-bit addressing operation for the purpose; but sooner or later, you will want to do 32-bit addressing from 16-bit mode.

The easiest way to do this is to make sure you use a register for the address, since any effective address containing a 32-bit register is forced to be a 32-bit address. So you can do

              mov eax,offset_into_32_bit_segment_specified_by_fs
              mov dword [fs:eax],0x11223344

This is fine, but slightly cumbersome (since it wastes an instruction and a register) if you already know the precise offset you are aiming at. The x86 architecture does allow 32-bit effective addresses to specify nothing but a 4-byte offset, so why shouldn't NASM be able to generate the best instruction for the purpose?

It can. As in section 9.1, you need only prefix the address with the `DWORD` keyword, and it will be forced to be a 32-bit address:

              mov dword [fs:dword my_offset],0x11223344

Also as in section 9.1, NASM is not fussy about whether the `DWORD` prefix comes before or after the segment override, so arguably a nicer-looking way to code the above instruction is

              mov dword [dword fs:my_offset],0x11223344

Don't confuse the `DWORD` prefix outside the square brackets, which controls the size of the data stored at the address, with the one `inside` the square brackets which controls the length of the address itself. The two can quite easily be different:

              mov word [dword 0x12345678],0x9ABC

This moves 16 bits of data to an address specified by a 32-bit offset.

You can also specify `WORD` or `DWORD` prefixes along with the `FAR` prefix to indirect far jumps or calls. For example:

              call dword far [fs:word 0x4321]

This instruction contains an address specified by a 16-bit offset; it loads a 48-bit far pointer from that (16-bit segment and 32-bit offset), and calls that address.

### 9.3 Other Mixed-Size Instructions

The other way you might want to access data might be using the string instructions (`LODSx`, `STOSx` and so on) or the `XLATB` instruction. These instructions, since they take no parameters, might seem to have no easy way to make them perform 32-bit addressing when assembled in a 16-bit segment.

This is the purpose of NASM's `a16` and `a32` prefixes. If you are coding `LODSB` in a 16-bit segment but it is supposed to be accessing a string in a 32-bit segment, you should load the desired address into `ESI` and then code

              a32 lodsb

The prefix forces the addressing size to 32 bits, meaning that `LODSB` loads from `[DS:ESI]` instead of `[DS:SI]`. To access a string in a 16-bit segment when coding in a 32-bit one, the corresponding `a16` prefix can be used.

The `a16` and `a32` prefixes can be applied to any instruction in NASM's instruction table, but most of them can generate all the useful forms without them. The prefixes are necessary only for instructions with implicit addressing: `CMPSx` (section A.19), `SCASx` (section A.149), `LODSx` (section A.98), `STOSx` (section A.157), `MOVSx` (section A.105), `INSx` (section A.80), `OUTSx` (section A.112), and `XLATB` (section A.169). Also, the various push and pop instructions (`PUSHA` and `POPF` as well as the more usual `PUSH` and `POP`) can accept `a16` or `a32` prefixes to force a particular one of `SP` or `ESP` to be used as a stack pointer, in case the stack segment in use is a different size from the code segment.

`PUSH` and `POP`, when applied to segment registers in 32-bit mode, also have the slightly odd behaviour that they push and pop 4 bytes at a time, of which the top two are ignored and the bottom two give the value of the segment register being manipulated. To force the 16-bit behaviour of segment-register push and pop instructions, you can use the operand-size prefix `o16`:

              o16 push ss
              o16 push ds

This code saves a doubleword of stack space by fitting two segment registers into the space which would normally be consumed by pushing one.

(You can also use the `o32` prefix to force the 32-bit behaviour when in 16-bit mode, but this seems less useful.)

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