     
                ݳ National Genealogical Society 
                           ݳ Computer Interest Group       
                               4527 Seventeenth Street North 
                            Arlington, VA  22207-2399     
                          
                           ݳ Voice: 703-525-0050   OPUS   
                ݳ BBS:   703-528-2612  109/650 
     
      Sysop: Don Wilson        24 hours a day        300/1200/2400 Baud 
     

                         ͻ
                               Help Guide No. 4      
                          ************************** 
                          SEARCHING YOUR FAMILY TREE 
                          ************************** 
                             By Richard A. Pence     
                         ͼ

     The following beginner's guide to genealogy was nationally syndicated 
     to newspapers in 1977 and again in 1982 by the Register and Tribune 
     Syndicate. While it has been updated to reflect such things as new 
     addresses, it obviously doesn't deal with how you might effectively 
     use home computers in genealogy work, since it was written before 
     their advent. Those experienced with computers will readily see 
     applications in research, recordkeeping and printing out material. 

     Richard A. Pence is co-author (with Paul Andereck) of Computer 
     Genealogy, published by Ancestry, Inc., Salt Lake City, and has 
     published several books on the Pence family. He is editor of the 
     NGS/CIG DIGEST, bimonthly newsletter of the Computer Interest Group 
     of the National Genealogical Society, and was an original sysop of 
     the NGS/CIG BBS (established 1986), a part of the National Genealogy 
     Conference. 
     
     COPYRIGHT 1982 by the Register and Tribune Syndicate, Inc., Des 
     Moines, Iowa. Updated December 1986 and April 1988. Used with 
     permission. 

                             ͻ
                               HOW TO GET STARTED 
                             ͼ

One of the difficult aspects of genealogy - at least for me - is trying to 
explain to friends why a grown man should spend countless hours in a musty 
library or chasing around the country copying inscriptions from tombstones in 
overgrown cemeteries. 

That sort of avocation, they think, is reserved for matronly ladies who want 
to join patriotic societies. 

There are many who search their family trees for that reason alone. But 
genealogy is much more. It is a human history of our nation's growth and a 
puzzle infinitely more challenging than the Sunday crossword. 

If you enjoy solving a mystery or are fascinated by the early history of our 
country, then genealogy may be the hobby for you. 

                                      -1-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


But where do you start? The best place is right at home. 

The first thing you should do is write down all you know about your family, 
starting with yourself and your parents and working backward to your 
grandparents, great grandparents and so on. Chances are someone already has 
started this process; if so, your job will be easier. 

You should include dates and places of births, marriages, deaths, places of 
residence and other information, such as occupation, military service or 
church affiliation. 

When you get stuck, figure out who in your family might know the answer. In 
fact, you should try to interview your older relatives as a first order of 
business. With some luck, you may find out much of what you want to know about 
a particular branch of your family. 

Early in my research I visited a great aunt who supposedly had kept some 
family records. I didn't really expect the treasure I found. Among the things 
she had: my third great grandmother's family Bible - complete with vital 
statistics for three generations - which had made its way from Massachusetts 
to a homestead in South Dakota nearly 100 years before; a family photo album 
with pictures that predated the Civil War and which contained photos of four 
of my third great grandparents; and old newspaper clippings, letters and notes 
which provided additional information and clues.  

Ŀ
 INTERVIEW POINTERS 


There are things to keep in mind when interviewing or writing your relatives. 

First, make your questions specific. You'll have a better chance of getting a 
helpful answer. If you ask generally about early family recollections, your 
correspondent may not reply or may say that little can be remembered. Ask 
about specific people, specific times or places.  

I once wrote a great uncle, asking him for any information he might have on 
his ancestors. He answered, saying he didn't remember anything. I then wrote 
and asked him if he knew were his father had lived in 1870. His return letter 
not only solved that mystery, but included colorful stories about great 
grandfather's days as a cowboy in Texas and Kansas, stories told at bedtime 
when my great uncle was a boy. 

Second, inquire about photographs, diaries, letters and other family papers 
that may give clues for names and places your family lived. Look for items 
such as funeral cards, birth announcements or marriage, birth or death 
certificates. 

Third, keep track of what you are told in a carefully dated and documented 
fashion. Write down who told you and when they told you for each piece of 
information. If a relative sends you an undated letter, add the date you 
received it. If you use a tape recorder, begin the tape with the date and 
location and the name of the person you are interviewing, as well as your own 
name. 

                                      -2-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Ŀ 
 FAMILY TRADITIONS 


You should treat family traditions with a certain amount of healthy 
skepticism. These stories - often embellished from generation to generation - 
are great clues for further research, but they shouldn't be accepted until 
they can be documented. 

There are some traditions that seem to pop up in nearly every family. If you 
encounter one of these, don't disregard it - but be careful how you use it. 
Here are some: 


The "Three Brothers"

Invariably you will come across the belief that the founders of a particular 
family in this country were "three brothers, who came here at an early date." 
A common variation is that "one remained in New England, one went south and 
one went west." 

This tradition reflects the desire of an individual to believe that everyone 
with the same last name is somehow related. The "three brothers" theory neatly 
explains why there are families with that name throughout the country whose 
relationships can't be established. Most genealogists disregard this theory 
unless there is evidence otherwise. 


"We're Related to Nobility"

This tradition also is common but often not true. Variations include a lost 
dukedom, riches or a castle in some foreign land. 

Unscrupulous promoters have played upon the desire for wealth or status by 
convincing people to contribute toward a fund seeking to restore a lost 
fortune or property to its "rightful heirs" - usually everybody with the same 
last name as some rich or famous person. 

The strange thing about these con games is that the more you try to tell "Aunt 
Bessie" she's being taken, the more she is convinced that there's a giant 
conspiracy aimed at depriving her and her relatives of their just inheritance. 

If it does turn out that you have an English lord as an ancestor or that you 
and George Washington are descended from the same stock, then you have an 
interesting addition to the story of your family. (When you consider that in 
just 12 generations - less than 300 years - an individual has 8,190 ancestors, 
it wouldn't be terribly unusual to find such a connection.) But don't forget 
that for every nobleman in most family trees, there are several dozen 
ancestors who came to this country as indentured servants. 


Association With Famous People

You often will hear of some ancestor's association with famous people or 

                                      -3-

                           Searching Your Family Tree 


events. Stories like these may have some foundation, but they are often 
impossible to document. However, if the facts seem to fit you'll want to 
continue researching the tradition. 

As a small boy, I read a relative's account of how our ancestor - my third 
great grandfather - supposedly spent a winter in an Indian "wickiup" (teepee 
or lodge) and was later confronted by its owner, Blackhawk, the famous Sac 
chief. The story was worth more checking for two reasons: Our ancestor was 
known to be in that area of northwestern Illinois at the time, and history 
records that an incident such as this (according to Blackhawk's autobiography) 
was one of the things that led up to the Blackhawk Indian War in the early 
1830s.  

Finally, several years ago, I discovered an eyewitness account of the event. 
Not only was our ancestor named as the intruder, but specific dates and places 
were given, thus documenting when the family moved into Illinois. In this 
case, a family tradition led to the eventual proof of an ancestor's 
participation in an interesting historical event and added illuminating 
details about his life. 

But other traditions have never proved out. I'm still trying to document an 
item in an Indiana history that claims Abraham Lincoln visited once or twice 
at the home of a second great grandfather (Is it true? If so, what was the 
reason?), one that says New England relatives were frequent visitors of J.  
Pierpont Morgan, the financier (they were related to him through a Pierpont 
line, but at best distant cousins!), and still another that places an ancestor 
among those who participated in the Boston Tea Party (turns out he was a 
prominent leader during the Revolution, but no facts relate him to this 
event). 


Other Traditions

There are some other common problems with family traditions you should watch 
for. Some examples: 

An incident often will be credited to one side of the family when in fact it 
happened to another side. Your grandmother may tell you a story she heard as a 
child about something that happened to her paternal grandfather and later you 
discover that it was her maternal grandfather who was involved. 

Sometimes the story will be credited to a person in the wrong generation. An 
example appears in my grandfather's obituary, which says he was descended from 
a "Revolutionary War veteran who became known as Judge John Pence." Since 
Judge John wasn't born until 1774, I knew this was impossible. I assumed what 
happened was that the family stretched a statement in an early family history 
from "the family goes back to Revolutionary days" into veteran's status for 
the first known ancestor. Years later I discovered documentation that John's 
father was the one who had served in the Revolution. 

Mistakes about national origin can confuse a family's history. Your great 
grandmother may have denied a particular nationality because it was not "the 
thing to be" in her day. Consequently, your grandmother might pass on to you 
what she believes to be the truth; in reality, though, great grandmother 
"withheld evidence."
                                      -4-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Don't be surprised if, while you're interviewing Aunt Bessie, she suddenly has 
amnesia after having displayed a remarkable memory about the family tree, 
complete with names, dates and places. Suddenly - when you ask her about a 
particular ancestor - she can't remember a thing. That's a sure sign you've 
found a family "black sheep" - we all have them! 
 
                            ͻ
                             KEEPING YOUR RECORDS 
                            ͼ

As you collect more and more information about your ancestors, you'll find 
that you will have an increasingly difficult time keeping track of who is who. 
That's when you'll want to set up some sort of record-keeping system. 

A looseleaf notebook and alphabetical files are enough at first. The notebook 
is compact enough to be carried when doing research, yet it can contain enough 
information so you can double-check information on the spot. The alphabetical 
file provides a safe and orderly means of keeping copies of accumulated 
records or notes and correspondence about a particular family. 

Ŀ
 THE NOTEBOOK 


These are the records I include in my "traveling notebook": 


Family Ancestor Charts or Pedigree Charts

These charts, which can be purchased through most genealogical societies or 
from businesses or bookstores which specialize in genealogy, are for your 
direct ancestors only. They begin at the left of the page with an individual 
(you or your child or parent), then branch out to the right to show parents, 
grandparents, etc., including dates and places of births, deaths and 
marriages. If you are the "subject" of the chart which is designated as Chart 
No. 1, you are assigned the number 1. Your father is No. 2, your mother is No. 
3, your paternal grandfather is No. 4, and so on. Pedigree charts usually have 
complete information on three generations of ancestors for an individual, with 
the names of the members of the fourth generation plus a reference to the 
succeeding charts where their vital information is recorded.  

This commonly used numbering system for pedigree charts is called an 
"ahnentafel" by genealogists, after the title of a book where it was first 
used. By looking at a chart you can see that the number for any individual's 
father is 2 times that of the individual and that person's mother's number is 
2 times plus 1. With the exception of No. 1, who can be either male or female, 
all even-numbered persons are males and all odd-numbered are females. The 
spouse of No. 1 is not assigned a number. 

If you don't have charts, you can simply do an "ahnentafel listing" on a sheet 
of paper, with the persons listed in numerical order. Carrying this numbering 
system over to other records allows quick identification of any person in your 
records and allows you to file numerically if you choose. 


                                      -5-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Charts subsequent to No. 1 are numbered sequentially, with Chart No. 2 having 
the ancestors of No. 16 (your great great grandfather), Chart No. 3 the 
ancestors of No. 17 and so on. All these charts are kept in the front of your 
notebook and provide a record of the statistics you have on your more distant 
ancestors. As you acquire information, you may need to include an index of 
each family name in your notebook. This index probably won't be necessary 
until you have traced several families back a half dozen or more generations. 


Family Group Sheets

The other major section in your notebook is a collection of family group 
sheets containing information about each couple whose names are on your 
pedigree charts. These sheets can be arranged alphabetically by last name or 
numerically according to your pedigree charts. 

Included on these sheets is the following information: name of husband, date 
and place of his birth, marriage, death and burial, and names of his parents. 
Similar information is given for the wife and for each of the couple's 
children with room for their spouses' names. Space is left for other 
information such as places of residence, occupation, church affiliation and 
military service. 

Also included is such information as additional marriages for either husband 
or wife and the citation or source of each piece of information. Children born 
from other marriages of your ancestors are listed on separate family group 
sheets. Adopted children may be listed if the adoption is noted. 

As with pedigree charts, family group sheets can be done on a plain sheet of 
paper. Among places where these forms can be ordered are: The National 
Genealogical Society, 4527 Seventeenth Street North, Arlington, VA 22207; New 
England Historical and Genealogical Society, 101 Newbury Street, Boston MA 
02116; the Everton Publishers, P.O. Box 368, Logan, UT 84321; or they may be 
bought at any of the many branch libraries of the Church of Jesus Christ of 
Latter-day Saints and in bookstores which deal in genealogy or history. 

The information on your family group sheets will provide you with backup facts 
for those contained on your charts and also will come in handy on your 
research excursions. 

Ŀ
 BROTHERS AND SISTERS 


While you may not be directly interested in facts about the brothers and 
sisters (siblings) of your ancestors, this information often can provide a 
vital clue about your own direct line. 

For instance, you might learn that a particular great grandfather's name was 
John Doe, but you don't know his father's name. From other sources, you learn 
that John had a brother named James and a sister Elizabeth. Put this 
information, with actual or approximate dates of birth, on the children's 
portion of a family group sheet. 


                                      -6-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


If the children you know about seem to have several years between their dates 
of birth, you should leave blanks for other probable children. Also leave the 
spaces for the parents blank. Later in your research, you may discover that a 
Samuel Doe had children named John, James and Elizabeth, as well as others. 
Check this information against what you have learned about your great 
grandfather and his siblings. If there's enough to convince you that Samuel 
may indeed be John's father, then you can begin in earnest to find out more 
about him. 

There's another important reason for learning about the brothers and sisters 
of your ancestors: They can provide clues to earlier generations of a family. 

Building on the above information, suppose your great grandfather and one or 
more of his brothers named their first sons Samuel. This would be added 
evidence that Samuel was John's father, for it was the custom in the last 
century to name the first son after the paternal grandfather. 

Likewise, the second son was commonly named after the maternal grandfather, 
and succeeding sons were often named after uncles or great uncles. The girls, 
too, were often named after their grandmothers or great grandmothers. 

And given names that appear to be surnames also can provide clues to a 
mother's or grandmother's maiden name. Naming a son John Smith Doe might 
indicate that his maternal grandfather's name was John Smith. 

Your family group sheets can also help in establishing ages of the parents and 
children. Suppose you are piecing together information on a family and you 
only have ages or birthdates for a few of the children. Group the children as 
best you can from the oldest down to the youngest. 

If you know the spread of time from the oldest to the youngest, you may be 
able to approximate the mother's age by keeping in mind normal childbearing 
ages. Statistics tell us that the average age for men to marry is about 25; 
for women, about 21. The average time between children is about two years, 
sometimes less. 

If there is a gap of several years between children, it likely could indicate 
that one or more children died at birth or in infancy. Another possibility is 
that the older group of children had a different mother who died and the 
younger group are the offspring of a second marriage. 

Large numbers of children with a spread of 25 years between the youngest and 
oldest definitely should lead you to examine whether there was another wife. 
If you know there was an earlier wife, but are unsure as to when she died, 
think of the possibility she may have died in childbirth, a frequent cause of 
death in early days. 

Ŀ
 YOUR FILES 


Despite all of the information you'll have in your "traveling notebook," you 
still will need a place to keep other documents and backup material. 


                                      -7-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


A secondhand standard letter-size file cabinet should do the job. Initially, I 
had a file folder for each family name filed alphabetically. As the amount of 
information grew, however, these folders had to be subdivided. 

I now have dozens of folders for the Pence family, including several for some 
individuals, plus many for unrelated Pence families. (In the course of your 
research, you'll accumulate a lot of material on unrelated lines. You'll want 
to file this material because it can help you prove or disprove theories about 
your own lines. In my case, piecing together all of the various Pence families 
in the U.S. eventually became an overriding genealogical interest. 

Above all, remember as you go about your genealogical research that everything 
must be verified or documented before it can be considered genealogical 
evidence. Place each bit of information, its source, the place you found it, 
the date and other pertinent facts on a sheet and put it into its proper file 
folder as soon as you can. 

                      ͻ
                       SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION 
                      ͼ

Genealogists need to learn what written records are available and where to 
find them in order to do an accurate job on their family trees. Generally, 
records are referred to as either "primary" (contemporary or original) or 
"secondary" (compiled or published). 

Primary records are those which report an event at or close to the time it 
happened. They are original records of events and include state or federal 
census records; courthouse records, such as deeds, wills, probates, birth or 
death records, naturalization records, or court proceedings (both civil and 
criminal); church records, primarily baptism and marriage; ships' passenger 
lists; and military records. 

Secondary, or published records, include histories, indexes or compilations of 
census or marriage records, printed family histories or genealogies, and 
collections of tombstone inscriptions. 

Primary records are the most reliable source of information, but secondary 
sources can provide you with many shortcuts in your genealogical research. A 
printed family genealogy, for example, might have information on several 
generations of a given line you're searching. 

Most competent genealogists consider published family histories only as clues 
for further searching. They use the dates and places as evidence of where to 
search for more supporting information. A well-done family history or 
genealogy will include citations to primary records and will greatly simplify 
your future research. 

Ŀ
 LIBRARIES 


As interest in genealogy and local history has grown, more and more libraries 
have improved their collections in these areas. Many county-seat libraries 

                                      -8-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


have fine collections. Almost every state library has a special collection of 
genealogical materials, often maintained with the aid of a state historical or 
genealogical society. Unfortunately, smaller libraries often cannot afford 
such collections, although some books may be available through interlibrary 
loan. 

In your search for secondary reference materials, you'll want to start at your 
local - or nearest larger - library, especially if your family has lived in 
your county or state for many years. Ask your librarian for local histories 
and genealogies; one of these might, for instance, tell you where your family 
lived before it came to the county where you now live. Also check the 
libraries in nearby counties. 

Often the books you need to check will not be available locally. If you have a 
fairly good idea of the information you want and which book it is in you may 
be able to write your state library (or another library) and ask for specific 
information. 

Many state libraries have genealogical finding aids which can help you. Some 
have indexes of names in early histories or other printed or microfilm 
records, such as marriage record indexes. Write your state library and ask for 
information. Most have a pamphlet describing what is available.  

Many will copy printed or microfilm records for you for a fee. They also may 
be able to provide you with a list of people who will undertake genealogical 
research for you for a fee. 


The Library of Congress

This library (Washington, DC 20540) has an excellent collection of genealogies 
and local histories. If your travels include a trip to Washington, this is a 
must visit. The library's small staff can only do a limited amount of 
searching in the catalogs and indexes for specific titles or references if you 
query it by mail. 

You can write the library for free leaflets describing its services. The three 
most helpful are "Reference Services and Facilities of the Local History and 
Genealogy Room," "Guide to Genealogical Research: A Selected List," and 
"Surnames: A Selected List of Books." 


The DAR Library

The Library of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution 
(1776 D Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20006), has an extensive genealogical 
collection, including printed genealogies as well as manuscripts submitted by 
individuals or local chapters. It also has Bible, church and cemetery records, 
abstracts of court records, lineage books, and other materials. The Library is 
open to nonmembers for a small fee except during April. 
     




                                      -9-

                           Searching Your Family Tree



NGS Library

The National Genealogical Society has its own library and maintains a library 
loan service and research service for members. The library collection includes 
published and unpublished works pertaining to genealogy, local history and 
heraldry. It is open to nonmembers for a small fee. 


Mormon Library

The most famous genealogical library is that of the Church of Jesus Christ of 
Latter-day Saints (35 North West Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84150), called the 
Family History Center. It has a massive genealogical collection, much of it on 
microfilm or microfiche and available through branch libraries around the 
country. 

Its collection includes a computer-produced genealogical library catalog on 
microfiche; the latest edition of the International Genealogical Index, which 
lists the names and selected vital data of approximately 100 million deceased 
persons from over 90 countries; the Accelerated Indexing System's microfiche 
index for 1790-1850; an extensive list of library aids and reference books; 
and the Family Registry of some 100,000-plus names coordinating the searchers 
with the names being searched. 

The library is open to the public and specialists in most areas are available 
for consultation. 

You'll save a lot of backtracking if you make certain you don't leave a 
library, court house or other research site without a complete citation 
regarding information you've found. Also write down the citations and general 
content for books you didn't find anything in and keep a list of those so you 
won't go over the same ground again. This list can also be of help in case you 
need to go back to check these sources for newly discovered ancestors. 

Ŀ
 GENEALOGIES AND LOCAL HISTORIES 


As previously mentioned, two of the more common types of secondary information 
are family genealogies and local histories. These can be excellent sources of 
information or clues for further research. You should keep in mind, however, 
that these sources may not always be accurate. 

Local histories were very popular in the latter part of the 1800s, especially 
in the Midwest. Most of them were money-making efforts of large publishers who 
sent teams of people out into a county. These people collected some local 
history and local biographies and added them to a pre-packaged state history. 

They also sold books, for that is the way the publishers made money. And the 
way to make sure they would sell more copies was to include flowery write-ups 
about county residents - either for a fee or upon the subject's promise to buy 
one or more of the usually high-priced books. The more prominent one was made 
to appear, the more books he was likely to buy, so the publisher's word 
craftsmen spared no adjectives. 
                                      -10-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


The biographies were full of "loyal patriots," "respected farmers" and 
"prominent merchants," as well as "loving wives and mothers." 

Even with these drawbacks, there often is much genealogical information in 
these presentations. Usually the names of previous generations are given, 
along with the wife's maiden name and the names of her parents. Often included 
were the dates the family came to the county and where it had previously 
lived. 

One of the major drawbacks of family genealogies and histories, especially 
those published in the Nineteenth Century, is the lack of adequate 
documentation. As often as not, the author - in his zeal to trace the family 
back to the Mayflower or other illustrious beginnings - made serious mistakes. 
The most common one was assuming that an ancestor was the son of a particular 
man with the same name without proper documentation. 

On the other hand, these books provide excellent clues for further research. 
You can usually make your own judgments as to the accuracy of a particular 
genealogy by noting such things as completeness and citations to specific 
sources. 

                           ͻ
                            THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES 
                           ͼ

Of all the materials and sources available to the genealogist, by far the most 
important are primary records or "original" records. These are the records 
found in archives, courthouses, town halls, old churches - even in the attic. 

The value of primary records is that they are contemporary with the event 
which they record. Thus they are more likely to be accurate than a record made 
some time later from memory. 

The National Archives and Records Administration (Washington, DC, 20408) is 
the repository for the U.S. government. It preserves and makes available 
valuable federal records from all three branches of government. The records in 
the custody of the National Archives are housed in the National Archives 
building in Washington, DC, (bounded by Pennsylvania and Constitution Avenues 
and 7th and 9th Streets, N.W.), in the Washington National Records Center in 
Suitland, MD, and in eleven archives branches around the country. 

Ŀ
 CENSUS RECORDS 


One of the most valuable records for the genealogist is the federal census. 
The United States government has conducted a census of each state and 
territory every ten years since 1790 and, in some places, other years. The 
federal census records from 1790 through 1840 contain little genealogical 
information. Only the head of household is given by name; all others in the 
family are counted only in specific age groups by sex. These records, though, 
can be helpful, for they tell you the number of children in the family and 
their approximate ages (remember that not all in the household are necessarily 
family members). They also can help you find where your family lived and 
pinpoint your research. 
                                      -11-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


The 1850 census was the first to include the name of each person in a 
household, including age, sex, color, occupation, and birth place (state, 
territory or foreign country) and value of real estate and personal property 
(usually just for the head of the household). In 1870 the census gave the 
month of birth if born during the year, the month of marriage if married 
within the year, and whether the father or mother of each individual was 
foreign born. The 1880 census added two valuable pieces of information: the 
relationship of each person to the head of the household and the birthplace of 
the father and mother of each person. The 1890 census was largely destroyed by 
fire in 1921 and only fragments of it are available for research. 

The 1900 and 1910 censuses are the most helpful available. The 1900 census 
included the month and year of birth of each individual, as well as the number 
of years married for each couple, the number of children the woman had borne 
and the number living in 1900. The census indicated whether a family rented or 
owned its own residence, whether it was a home or a farm and whether it was 
mortgaged. For foreign born, the year of immigration was given and whether 
naturalized or first papers filed. The 1910 census has similar information and 
includes whether it was a first marriage or, if not, what number, language 
spoken, employment status, and whether served in the Union or Confederate army 
or navy. 

Because of the confidential nature of census records, Congress determines when 
each census may be released. Current law requires that census information 
remain confidential for 72 years. The 1920 census, available in 1992, is the 
last to have been indexed. 

Published indexes are available for all U.S. censuses from 1790 through 1850. 
Computerized indexes of the 1860 census for most states are available or 
should shortly be available for most states. 

The 1790 census - those parts available - was published by the government in 
the early 1900s and has since been privately reprinted. Published census 
schedules for 1790 are for Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New 
Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South 
Carolina and Vermont. 

The schedules for the remaining states - Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, New 
Jersey, Tennessee and Virginia - were burned during the War of 1812. 
Substitute schedules, made from names in state censuses or tax lists, have 
been published for many of the missing states. These printed 1790 schedules 
are available in most larger libraries. 

The 1880, 1900 and most of the 1910 censuses have "soundex" indexes on 
microfilm. The soundex is a coded surname index based on the way a surname 
sounds rather than how it is spelled. The 1880 soundex includes only those 
households with a child 10 or younger. 

In using a census index, be certain that you have looked for your surname in 
all of its possible spelling variations. Remember also that indexes, including 
those produced by a computer, are subject to human error. Every genealogist 
has a horror story about printed census indexes; studies show the error rate 
to be high because of improper keypunching or misreading of the original 
records. So if you don't find your ancestor in an index it doesn't necessarily 

                                      -12-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


mean that he cannot be found in the census. You may often have to search every 
name in a given county before you find him or her. 

The National Archives has original or microfilm copies of all the federal 
census schedules that have been made available to the public. These can be 
used in the microfilm reading room in the National Archives or at one of the 
eleven branches. If you are searching in Washington, enter the Pennsylvania 
Avenue side of the building. You will need to sign in and out and notebooks or 
brief cases are subject to search. The microfilm reading room is located on 
the fourth floor. While a researcher's identification card is necessary for 
certain research in the National Archives, you don't need one to use this 
room. In any case ID cards are available upon request. 

To help with your census search, the Archives has a free booklet, "Getting 
Started: Beginning Your Genealogical Research in the National Archives." 
Included is an explanation of the soundex system. 

If you are unable to visit a library where census record microfilms are 
available, the National Archives will, on request, send you a copy of each of 
its catalogs of microfilm copies: "Federal Population Censuses 1790-1890," 
"1900 Federal Population Census," and "The 1910 Federal Population Census." 
Prices and order blanks are included. Also, many county libraries have 
microfilm copies of census records for their local areas. 

Census records cannot always be relied on as accurate. Persons giving the 
information may not have known the exact ages or places of birth of each 
member of the household. And there's always been vanity about ages - I've 
noted cases where people aged only five years in the ten years between the 
censuses! Census takers spelled what they heard and many of them spelled 
badly. And apparently they weren't hired because of their penmanship. Even so, 
the family listing in a census gives you valuable information and provides 
clues for further research. 

Ŀ
 MILITARY RECORDS 


The National Archives has military service records beginning with the 
Revolutionary War. Two types of records are of particular interest to the 
genealogist: the compiled service record and the pension application record. 

Compiled military service records are of limited genealogical value. They 
serve primarily to prove military service by your ancestor. For the most part, 
they consist of the serviceman's rank, military unit, dates of service, 
payroll and muster rolls, discharge, desertion or death. A few of the later 
war records include some personal information such as age, birthplace and 
physical description. 

Microfilm indexes of military service records are available for the following 
periods: Revolution, 1775-1783; post-Revolution, 1784-1811; War of 1812, 1812-
1815; Indian Wars, 1817-1858; Mexican War, 1846-1848; Civil War, Union troops, 
1861-1865; Civil War, Confederate troops, 1861-1865; Spanish-American War, 
1898-1899; and the Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902. Records from World War 
I will likely be released in a few years. 

                                      -13-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Pension application records are the most important military records for 
genealogists. The National Archives has pension applications and payment 
records for veterans, widows and other heirs. They are based on service in the 
U.S. armed forces between 1775 and 1916, but not duty in the service of the 
Confederate States. 

Genealogical information in these files varies. In the file for one of my 
ancestors was an "autograph letter" recounting his experiences during the 
Revolution as well as statements signed by John Hancock attesting to his 
service in Maine, along with notarized information relating to his marriage 
and the birth of his children. Others may contain only depositions relating to 
the applicant's service, his age, birthplace and place of residence. Widow's 
applications often have more material, for they had to furnish the date and 
place of the marriage, the date and place of her husband's death, her maiden 
name, age, residence and the names and ages of her children. 

The National Genealogical Society compiled and published an alphabetical name 
index of the Revolutionary War pension applications files and is working on 
one for the War of 1812. 

To secure photocopies of military or pension records by mail, write the 
National Archives Reference Service Branch (NNIR) and ask for copies of its 
military request order forms. Information on the form must be as complete as 
possible for an effective search to be made. At a minimum, you must know the 
state from which he served and the period when he served. There is a charge 
for this service. 

Some state archives or libraries have additional military records - or copies 
of the federal records - so you will want to check there. Iowa, for instance, 
has an excellent collection gathered as a part of a WPA project in the 1930s 
and maintained by military authorities. Some states also issued pensions; 
inquiries about these should be directed to the state where the veteran lived 
after the war. 

Ŀ
 PASSENGER ARRIVAL RECORDS/FEDERAL LAND RECORDS 


The Archives and its branches have passenger arrival records beginning in 1820 
(they were not required before that date). To request a search of the 
passenger arrival records, write the Reference Service Branch (NNIR) and 
request forms for ordering passenger arrival records. The important 
information you will need includes approximate date of arrival of your 
ancestor, port of entry, and - if possible - the name of the ship. There is a 
charge for this service. 

If your ancestor lived in one of the "public land" states (30 states, 
primarily from Ohio west) and bought land directly from the federal 
government, you can request a search of the National Archives Records. You 
will need to furnish your ancestor's full name, the state in which he or she 
acquired land, whether the land was acquired before or after 1908, and, if 
possible, the legal description of the land by section, township and range. If 
you don't have a legal description, describe its location as precisely as you 
can. There is a fee for this service and it may take several weeks to process 
your order. 
                                      -14-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


                          ͻ
                           STATE AND LOCAL RECORDS 
                          ͼ

The records maintained by each county or other local jurisdiction are valuable 
sources of family information. Land records, wills and probates, other court 
records and vital statistics are just some of the materials available to the 
genealogist. 

Unfortunately, many of these records have been lost by fire or, perhaps, 
carelessness. In most states, birth and death records weren't kept until this 
century. Marriage records are often available for much earlier years. 

In general, early records for most of New England are fairly complete. Most 
Massachusetts vital records have been published. In the South, however, many 
early records weren't centrally kept or were lost or burned. 

In most states records of interest to genealogists are kept in the state 
archives, the state library and a land office. County records not transferred 
to the state archives are usually found in county courthouses. In New England 
some records, particularly vital records, are kept in town halls. 

Many state libraries have developed information sheets that will help you 
begin your research. There are also published genealogical research guides 
available for many states. 

The government publication, "Where to Write for Vital Records," gives specific 
information on the location of these records. Issued periodically, it is 
available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing 
Office, Washington, DC 20402, or can be found in many libraries. It lists 
information by state and includes the repository, address and cost of each 
certificate. 

"The Handy Book for Genealogists" is a particularly helpful guide. It contains 
information on local record sources, including published state and local 
histories, lists of libraries and historical societies, county maps of each 
state, a listing of counties, with records available in each and whom and 
where to write for them, date the county was formed and its parent counties, 
and a rundown of available census records and indexes to them. Available from 
Everton Publishers, P.O. Box 369, Logan, UT 84321. 

You can find out what records are available in a county by writing the county 
clerk. (The exact county official in charge of various records varies from 
state to state; a letter addressed to the clerk will usually be passed on to 
the proper office.) 

If you can provide a specific name and an approximate date for a document 
(deed, birth, death, marriage, will, etc.), the clerk can find and copy the 
record for you at a nominal fee (usually about $3). 






                                      -15-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Ŀ
 VITAL RECORDS 


While vital records are the most important records for genealogists, their 
availability varies widely from area to area, as previously mentioned. 

An additional problem is that information found in them is not always 
accurate. Early records may not be complete, the person providing the 
information may have given inaccurate data either intentionally or by mistake, 
or other errors have occurred in copying or indexing. 

If a parent gave the information for a birth certificate, you can assume it is 
accurate. Beware, however, of information provided for a death certificate. A 
person giving such information for his grandfather often didn't know the 
pertinent information asked, such as date and place of birth, or gave confused 
information. As an example, a great uncle provided information for the death 
certificate of his father (my great grandfather) and in the blank for the 
decedant's mother's maiden name (a sorely needed piece of information for me) 
is listed my great uncle's mother's name, not that of his father's mother. 

While the date of death given on a death certificate is usually accurate, the 
cause of death may not be as complete as you'd like even though furnished by a 
coroner or doctor. The cause of death for one of my ancestors is listed as 
"apoplexy" (stroke). Under "contributory causes," the doctor wrote 
"drunkeness" and under "how long" he entered "many years"! (A story begging to 
be learned! Followup led to an obituary which recounted a trip to town the 
Friday night before he died and the wrecking of the buggy on the way home; the 
obituary was diplomatically silent about the cause of the accident.) 

Marriage records are usually dependable, since the persons involved supplied 
the information. However, sometimes folks fudged about their ages - either 
because they were too young to marry without permission of their parents or 
they didn't want the clerk to know exactly how old they were. My father was 
married a few months before his 21st birthday and gave his age as 21, thus 
avoiding the hassle of getting his father to sign. And Dad went to a 
neighboring county for the marriage license, knowing that his home county 
would verify his age against his birth record. 

Ŀ
 PROBATE RECORDS 


Probate records are important for genealogists. Among the earliest available, 
they help document family relationships and dates of death. A will may list 
the wife and/or husband and all the children by their given names, may include 
some grandchildren's names and the married names of daughters and their 
husbands' names. Sometimes, though, you'll find one that simply says "my 
beloved wife" and "all of my children" without naming any of them. Remember, 
too, that a particular son or daughter may have previously been provided for 
and the absence of a name in a will does not necessarily mean a person was not 
an offspring of the deceased. 

If no will can be found, you must search for other papers. Usually you will 

                                      -16-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


find court orders appointing an administrator or executor. If a person left a 
will, he often named an "executor" of the will and the court required that 
person to post a bond. If a person died "intestate" (without a will), then the 
court usually appointed an "administrator." Thus the use of executor or 
administrator in court records indicates whether a will was left. Most 
counties have indexes of executors' and administrators' bonds. If you search 
long enough and hard enough you can almost always find some court record of a 
person's death - at least those who owned property, for there had to be some 
disposition of that property.  

Ŀ
 DEEDS 


Sometimes the answer can be found in deeds, although these usually do not 
contain genealogical information. At a minimum, deeds help you establish where 
your ancestors lived and when. Occasionally you will find family references 
such as "the same land which I inherited from my father, Samuel, as his eldest 
son and heir." Also, some land records, particularly those for settlement of 
estates, may list heirs. If your ancestor conveyed "an undivided fifth 
interest" in a piece of property it would indicate that he and four other 
heirs, likely his siblings, inherited the property. 

Deeds can also help establish whether an ancestor was married, since the sale 
of land requires the wife's consent. The absence of a wife's name indicates 
the seller was unmarried at the time. In one case, an ancestor had a first 
wife who died and he subsequently remarried, both dates unknown. Complicating 
this research was the fact that both women had the given name Elizabeth. 
However, careful checking of deeds involved in his many land transactions 
revealed a period of about two years when he sold land without a wife signing. 
This information revealed the approximate dates of the first woman's death and 
his later remarriage. 

Most counties have accurate indexes of deed records, usually a "grantor" 
(seller) index and a "grantee" (buyer) index. However, other persons who may 
be mentioned in a deed are not indexed and the information you are looking for 
may be "lost" in one of dozens of deed books. I once solved a perplexing 
genealogical problem for another person quite by accident. She wrote wanting 
to know if perhaps two of her ancestor's daughters had married into the Pence 
family since the two families were neighbors. They hadn't. But one day while 
checking a deed for some land my ancestor had bought, I discovered information 
relating to all of the marriages of her ancestor's children. The land in 
question was being sold by her ancestor's heirs, one of whom was a daughter 
whose existence and married name were unknown. The deed was indexed under the 
name of the unknown daughter's husband along with "et al" - "and others." 
Naturally, the person she was looking for was among the "others." Moral: You 
may have to check deeds for in-laws of your ancestors as well as those for 
neighbors in order to find that elusive fact. 

Ŀ
 GUARDIAN BONDS 


Another useful record found in courthouses is the record of guardian bonds, or 

                                      -17-


                           Searching Your Family Tree


orphans' bonds. These can establish the parentage of a person who was a minor 
and help establish dates of death for the parent or parents. Note that it was 
not necessary for both parents to be deceased for a guardian to be named. This 
was sometimes done in cases where a minor child was an heir to a grandfather's 
estate through the deceased parent or if a mother was remarrying. In both 
cases, and in others, the guardian was appointed to protect the child's rights 
to the estate. I've noted cases such as one where a person was named guardian 
of two orphans who had the same last name as he. Instead of being niece and 
nephew, as might be expected, they turned out to be his own children. He was 
named guardian in order to take custody of their portion of their mother's 
inheritance from her father's estate. 

As always, be sure to take complete citations when extracting wills, deeds or 
other court records. Witnesses or those who gave bond for certain transactions 
should also be recorded, for these may have been relatives. 

Ŀ 
 THE SPELLING OF NAMES 
 

Remember that in the early years of our country, many people could not read or 
write, so watch for variant spellings of the name you are searching. Often 
names were recorded as they sounded to clerks. This is how the name Bentz 
became Pence in most parts of the U.S. (the German "B" is often pronounced as 
"P"). Most often the spellings we use today were the result of an accident, 
not a deliberate effort. It's probably not worth your while to look for a 
court record for a name change, for it was seldom done, at least until more 
modern times. Likewise, people who spell their surname different from yours 
may be related to you, while those who spell it the same may not be. 

A few years ago, notice was taken of the legal name change made by a prominent 
person. A Johannes Hart Bentz lived in New Jersey in colonial times. He 
commonly was called John Pence and his will is recorded under that name. One 
of his sons, out of deference to his grandmother's maiden name, began using 
Hartpence as his surname. Generations later, a member of this family, 
remembering the story about the name having been changed in early days, went 
to court to have it changed back to "the old way." That's why a one-time 
presidential candidate has the name Gary Hart instead of Gary Pence! 

Another thing to watch for is translation of names. The German Zimmerman 
became its English equivalent, Carpenter, for example, or Schwartz became 
Black. 

You also need to watch for misspellings of place names, particularly in deeds. 
In searching for the spot where an ancestor lived, I kept finding it described 
as being "at the foot of Rich Mountain." No such place could be found on any 
map, old or new, in the area. I finally figured out why. The ancestor was 
German and if he described the land to an English clerk, he would describe it 
with a German accent. If the word was pronounced "rich," what might the 
correct word be? Answer: "Ridge." Sure enough, Ridge Mountain was on the map 
and the land was located. 





                                      -18-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Ŀ
 COUNTY BOUNDARIES 


In earlier times, the boundaries of the counties were constantly changing. 
Thus, in order for you to concentrate your research in the proper place, you 
need to know the geographic history of the areas you are interested in. 

For instance, some of my ancestors lived for many years in Shenandoah County, 
VA. This county was created in 1772 from a portion of Frederick County, which 
in turn was created in 1738 from Orange and Augusta counties - both of which 
were carved out of other counties. And today, the land on which they lived is 
located in Page County, which was created from Shenandoah County in 1833. 
Therefore, depending on the dates involved, you might have to search the 
courthouses of three or more counties to find the appropriate record for an 
individual. Often, you'll find records of your family in two or more counties, 
leading you to believe they moved; in reality, they may not have - but the 
county line did. 

Everton's "Handy Book" (mentioned earlier) can provide you with information 
about the formation of counties. 

Ŀ
 FAMILY BIBLES  
 

Family Bibles are often excellent records. But with these, too, there are some 
things you have to be careful about. For instance, Bibles usually are accurate 
family records, but you should check the date the Bible was printed. If it was 
printed in 1850 and contains family birth, death and marriage records back 
into the 1700s, obviously someone wrote these records long after the fact and 
may not have known the facts or remembered accurately, or even could have been 
told the wrong information. 

Also, you should check the handwriting carefully. If several entries are in 
the same shade of ink in almost identical handwriting, it's a good sign those 
entries were made at the same time and probably not concurrent with the event. 
The date of the last nearly identical record is probably closest to the 
recording date. 

Ŀ 
 TOMBSTONE RECORDS  
 

Tombstones, too, are good records, but they sometimes are erected many years 
after a person dies and therefore might contain erroneous dates. Or the 
stonecutter could have erred or been given the wrong information. Also be 
careful of printed compilations of cemetery records (this applies to other 
published material, such as marriage records), because errors can be made in 
copying, indexing or publishing. A book on one cemetery contains an entry for 
one of my wife's ancestors, including this quote: "son of N.B." This 
contradicted other information and it was not until much later - when I had 
someone recheck the stone for me - that I learned the correct inscription was: 
"Erected by his son, W.B." This fit what I had previously believed.  

                                      -19-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


When copying cemetery inscriptions, be careful not to misread numbers or 
letters. The number 4 is often carved with a light horizontal line that wears 
away leaving what looks like the number 1 or 7. Other numbers that are easy to 
misread: 3 and 8, 8 and 6, 5 and 3. Letters usually are more distinct, but C, 
G, D and O can be confused. Mar and May are hard to distinguish, as are Jul 
and Jun. When copying, place a question mark over letters or numbers about 
which you are unsure. 

Be sure to record surrounding stones, for they can provide clues to family 
relationships. Look for markers outlining family plots and note the names of 
all those buried within the plot. A woman who was a widow for a number of 
years, or a bride who died young, might be buried with her parents, and others 
with different names may be related. 

Many cemeteries will not be well cared for and will be badly overgrown. The 
best time to search is the early spring or late fall when the foliage is thin 
and the weeds short. Helpful equipment for "tombstone hunting" includes 
carpenter's chalk (for rubbing over letters to make them easier to read), a 
putty knife to scrape debris off fallen stones, a scrub brush to clean stones, 
a crowbar to turn heavy stones, perhaps an axe to clear away underbrush or a 
shovel to dig away from sunken stones, and a camera to record unusual stones. 

Even if your ancestor is buried in an unmarked grave, if you know the cemetery 
he or she is buried in you can sometimes get information about him or her from 
cemetery records. Write a library or historical society near the cemetery to 
learn if such records are available. Larger city cemeteries usually have a 
sexton who maintains such records. If one exists for the cemetery you are 
interested in, that is the person to contact. 

Ŀ 
 NEWSPAPERS  
 

Marriage notices, obituaries and birth announcements often can be found in old 
newspapers - if you are willing to spend the time to hunt through them. A few 
are indexed, but most require a page-by-page search. You'll need to know where 
the family lived and the approximate date of the event you are interested in. 

Some local libraries have microfilm or other copies of early newspapers and 
many state libraries have extensive collections. The Library of Congress has 
an excellent collection of early American newspapers. 

If you know the place and date of marriage, birth or death, you can usually 
get a copy of any mention of it (at least for more recent years) by writing 
newspapers in the area. Your library probably has a directory of newspapers in 
the U.S. 

"Newspaper Indexes: A Location and Subject Guide for Researchers," 3 vols., by 
Anita Cheek Milner (Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ), lists newspaper indexes by 
state, county and town, indicating the repositories in which they can be 
found. 




                                      -20-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


Ŀ  
 CHURCH RECORDS  
 

If you know the religious affiliation of your ancestor, you should try to find 
out what records are available for the churches in the area where he or she 
lived. Records vary widely from denomination to denomination. Some may be 
housed in a national or state repository; others are found on closet shelves 
of the current church secretary. 

"A Survey of American Church Records," by E. Kay Kirkham (Everton Publishers, 
Logan, UT), is a guide to the location of church records that have been 
published or deposited in public archives. 

Ŀ
 OTHER HELP  
 

There are countless other sources for genealogical information - literally too 
many to be considered. Your local library is a good resource in discovering 
some of them. It will likely have several books on genealogical research, all 
of which will give you additional ideas. It also may subscribe to a number of 
genealogical periodicals. Take time to check through a few of these. One 
feature in many of them is a section with queries about "lost" ancestors. I've 
received a lot of help by writing to those searching the same lines as I am. 
In fact, one of the pleasant things about genealogy is the willingness of its 
practitioners to share their findings with you.  

If you get stuck on a particular line, placing a query in a genealogical 
publication may yield results. If you follow this route, BE SPECIFIC. Saying 
you will "exchange information on the Baker family" won't bring many responses 
because readers won't know who it is you are looking for or if they have 
information that will help you. 

Try this approach: "Need parents of James L. Baker, born OH 1812, married Sue 
Allen in Bartholomew County, IN, in 1837; lived Warren County, IN, 1850 
census. Who were his parents? Hers? Was George Baker, Bartholomew County 1850 
his brother or cousin?" [NOTE: I made up all of the foregoing information, but 
after this article began appearing in local newspapers, I got a response to 
this ad!] 

If you write others seeking information, remember your mail manners. Because 
you're asking them to help you, you should make it easy for them. Ask 
questions precisely. Include as much information as necessary to identify the 
individual you are interested in, but don't include extraneous material. A 
short, to-the-point letter will get a response. One dealing with a variety of 
subjects will be set aside because of the extensive work involved in answering 
it. 

Be responsive to the needs of the individual you are writing and offer 
information you may have that could be of help. Offer to pay the cost of 
copies of material you request or to reimburse for out-of-pocket expenses. And 
it's customary when writing to ask information to include an SASE (self-
addressed stamped envelope) for the reply. You should have a supply of No. 10 

                                      -21-

                           Searching Your Family Tree


envelopes for sending your letters and the next smaller size for enclosure as 
an SASE. The Postal Service asks that you not fold envelopes that later will 
be mailed because these jam automatic sorting equipment. 

Keep a copy of the letters you send, for it may be difficult from the reply to 
tell what you said in your request. And it's a good idea to keep a log of in-
coming and out-going letters, including a notation as to when particular 
letters were answered.  
                                     ****** 









































[Created with PC-Write. If your printer won't handle boxes (such as those 
around subheads, formed by the "extended IBM character set"), try a program 
called PRSWAP - available on the NGS/CIG BBS in File Area #2. This program will 
translate the boxes to more common characters that any printer can handle.] 

                                      -22-
