@SUBJECT:Electrical Wiring FAQ [Part 1/2]
@PACKOUT:02-01-94Fr                                                 
Message-ID: <wirefaq.1_759652774@ferret.ocunix.on.ca>
Newsgroup: misc.consumers.house,rec.woodworking,sci.electronics,news.answers
misc.answers,rec.answers,sci.answers
Organization: Elegant Communications Inc., Ottawa, Canada

Archive-name: electrical-wiring/part1
Last-modified: Thu Dec  2 02:20:51 EST 1993

     Frequently Asked Questions on Electrical Wiring

                        Copyright 1991, 1992, 1993
  Steven Bellovin (smb@research.att.com)
  Chris Lewis (clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca)

  Redistribution for profit, or in altered content/format
  prohibited without permission of the authors.

     Comments to (automatic if you reply to this article):
      wirefaq@ferret.ocunix.on.ca

This FAQ is formatted as a digest.  Most news readers can
skip from one question to the next by pressing ^G.

Answers to many other topics related to houses can be obtained from
the misc.consumers.house archive; send an empty piece of mail to
house-archive@dg-rtp.dg.com for information.

Changes to previous issue marked with "|" in left column.  Watch
particularly for "NEW" in the Questions list for new or substantively
changed answers.  "g^|" will get you to the changed sections quickly
in most newsreaders.

Subject: Questions answered in this FAQ

 Introduction/Disclaimers
 What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?
 What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?
 Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?
 What do I need in the way of tools?
 What is UL listing?
 What is CSA approval?
 Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?
 Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?
 My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
 A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240
 What does an electrical service look like?
 What is a circuit?
 "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".
 What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?
 Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?
 What size wire should I use?
 Where do these numbers come from?
 What does "14-2" mean?
 What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector".  How are they used?
 What is a GFI/GFCI?
 Where should GFCIs be used?
 Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?
 What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?
 What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?
 Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization
 How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?
 Surges, spikes, zaps, grounding and your electronics
 Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
     Should the test button work?
 What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?
 Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?
 General outlet placement rules/line capacities
 What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?
 Should I use plastic or metal boxes?
 Junction box positioning?
 Can I install a replacement fixture?
 Noisy fluorescent fixtures, what do I do?
 What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?
 What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?
 Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?
 What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?
 How should I wire my shop?
 Underground wiring
 Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints
 Aluminum wiring
 I'm buying a house!  What should I do?
| What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
 Where do I buy stuff?
 Copper wire characteristics table


Subject: Introduction/Disclaimers

 Although we've done a fair bit of wiring, we are not
 electricians, and we cannot be responsible for what you do.  If
 you're at all uncertain about what is correct or safe, *don't
 do it*.  Contact someone qualified -- a licensed electrician,
 or your local electrical inspector.  Electricity is no joke;
 mistakes can result in shocks, fires, or electrocution.

 Furthermore, our discussion is based on the U.S. National
 Electrical Code (NEC) and the Canadian Electrical code (CEC).
 To the best of our abilities, we have confirmed every detail
 with the electrical code, but we don't quote sections
 simply to keep this thing readable.  If you think we're wrong,
 we invite you to correct us, but please - quote references!

 The NEC and the CEC do not, in and of themselves, have the
 force of law.  Many municipalities adopt it en toto.  Others,
 however, do not.  Check your with your local building
 department (and <provincial> Hydro Inspection Offices in
 Canada) to find out what applies in your area.  Also,
 your local electrical utility may also have special requirements
 for electrical service installation.  Bear in mind, too, that
 we say here applies primarily to ordinary single-family
 residences.  Multi-family dwellings, mobile homes, commercial
 establishments, etc., are sometimes governed by different
 rules.

 Also note that, contrary to popular belief in the U.S. (and in
 some parts of Canada), Canada is not a wholly-owned subsidiary
 of the U.S.  Consequently, the NEC does not apply in Canada.
 Lots of things are the same, including voltages, line
 frequencies, and the laws of physics.  But there are a number
 of crucial differences in the regulations.  Where we can, we've
 noted them, flagging the relevant passages with ``NEC'' or
 ``CEC''.

 Remember that the CEC and NEC are minimal standards.  It is often
 smart to go beyond their minimal requirements.

Subject: What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?

 The NEC is a model electrical code devised and published by the
 National Fire Protection Association, an insurance industry group.
 It's revised every three years.  The 1993 version has been released.
 You can buy a copy at a decent bookstore, or by calling them directly
 at 800-344-3555.  The code exists in several versions.  There's the
 full text, which is fairly incomprehensible.  There's an abridged
 edition, which has only the sections likely to apply to most houses.
 And there's the NEC Handbook, which contains the ``authorized
 commentary'' on the code, as well as the full text.  That's the
 recommended version.  Unfortunately, there's no handbook for
 the abridged edition.  And the full handbook is expensive --
 US$65 plus shipping and handling.

Subject: What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?

 The Canadian Standards Association is an organization made up
 of various government agencies, power utilities, insurance
 companies, electrical manufacturers and other organizations.
 The CSA publishes CSA Standard C22.1 which is updated every two
 or three years.  Each province adopts, with some amendments,
 this standard and publishes a province-specific code book.
 Since each province publishes its own slightly modified
 standard, it would be somewhat confusing to obtain the CSA
 standard itself.  In this FAQ, "CEC" really means the
 appropriate provincial standard.  In particular, this FAQ is
 derived from the Ontario Hydro Electrical Safety Code, 20th
 edition (1990).  Which is in turn based on CSA C22.1-1990 (16th
 edition).  While differences exist between the provinces, an
 attempt has been made to avoid specific-to-Ontario detail.

 The appropriate provincial code can be obtained from electrical
 inspection offices of your provincial power authority.  In
 Ontario, it's Ontario Hydro.  The Ontario Hydro book isn't
 overly fat.  It's about C$25, and includes mailed updates.  I
 hear that these standards are somewhat easier to read than the
 equivalent NEC publications.

 Don't bother asking in Quebec - DIY wiring is banned throughout
 the province.

Subject: Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?

 In most places, homeowners are allowed to do their own wiring.
 In some, they're not.  Check with your local electrical
 inspector.  Most places won't permit you to do wiring on other's
 homes for money without a license.  Nor are you permitted to do
 wiring in "commercial" buildings.  Multiple dwellings (eg: duplexes)
 are usually considered "semi-commercial" or "commercial".  However,
 many jurisdictions will permit you to work on semi-commercial
 wiring if you're supervised by a licensed electrician - if you can
 find one willing to supervise.

 If you do your own wiring, an important point:

 Do it NEAT and WELL!  What you really want to aim for is a better
 job than an electrician will do.  After all, it's your own home,
 and it's you or your family that might get killed if you make
 a mistake.  An electrician has time pressures, has the skills
 and knows the tricks of the trade to do a fast, safe job.
 In this FAQ we've consciously given a few recommendations that
 are in excess of code, because we feel that it's reasonable,
 and will impress the inspector.

 The inspector will know that you're an amateur.  You have to
 earn his trust.  The best way of doing this is to spend your
 time doing as neat a job as possible.  Don't cut corners.
 Exceed specifications.  Otherwise, the inspector may get extremely
 picky and fault you on the slightest transgressions.

 Don't try to hide anything from the inspector.

 Use the proper tools.  Ie: don't use a bread knife to strip
 wires, or twist wires with your fingers.  The inspector
 won't like it, and the results won't be that safe.  And it
 takes longer.  And you're more likely to stick a hunk of
 12ga wire through your hand that way.

 Don't handle house wire when it's very cold (eg: below -10C
 or 16F).  Thermoplastic house wire, particularly older types
 become very brittle.

Subject: What do I need in the way of tools?

 First, there's the obvious -- a hammer, a drill, a few
 screwdrivers, both straight and Phillips-head.  If you're 
 lucky enough to live in Canada (or find a source of CSA-approved
 devices) you need Robertson ("square recess") screwdrivers
 (#1 and #2) instead of phillips.

 For drilling a few holes, a 3/4" or 1" spade bit and 1/4" or
 3/8" electric drill will do.  If you're doing a lot, or
 are working with elderly lumber, we recommend a 1/2" drill
 (right-angle drills are wonderful.  Can be rented) and
 3/4" or 1" screw-point auger drill bits.  These bits pull
 you through, so they're much faster and less fatiguing, even
 in 90 year old hardwood timbers.

 Screw-driver bits are useful for drills, expecially if you
 install your electrical boxes using screws (drywall screws
 work well).
 
 For stripping wire, use a real wire stripper, not a knife or
 ordinary wire cutters.  Don't buy the $3 K-mart "combo stripper,
 crimper and bottle opener" types.  You should expect to pay
 $15 to $20 for a good "plier-type" pair.  It will have sized
 stripping holes, and won't nick or grab the wire - it should
 be easy to strip wire with it.  One model has a small hole in the
 blade for forming exact wire loops for screw terminals.  There
 are fancier types (autostrip/cut), but they generally aren't
 necessary, and pros usually don't use them.

 A pair of diagonal side cutter pliers are useful for clipping ends
 in constricted places.  Don't use these for stripping wire.

 You will need linesman pliers for twisting wires for wire nuts.

 You should have a pair of needle-nose pliers for fiddling
 inside boxes and closing loops, but it's better to form wire
 loops with a "loop former hole" on your wire stripper - more
 accurate.

 If you're using non-metallic cable, get a cable stripper for
 removing the sheath.  Or, do what some pros do, they nick the
 end of the sheath, grab the ground wire with a pair of pliers,
 and simply rip the sheath back using the ground wire as a
 "zipper", and cut the sheath off.  You shouldn't try to strip
 the sheath with a knife point, because it's too easy to
 slash the insulation on the conductors.  Apparently Stanley
 utility knives fitted with linoleum cutters (hooked blades)
 can be used to strip sheath, but there is still the possibility
 that you'll gouge the conductors.

 For any substantial amount of work with armored cable, it's well
 worth your while to invest in a rotary cable splitter (~US$ 18).
 Hack saws are tricky to use without cutting into the wire
 or the insulation.

 Three-prong outlet testers are a quick check for properly-wired
 outlets.  About $6.  Multimeters tell you more, but are a lot more
 expensive, and probably not worth it for most people.  A simple
 voltage sensor, which can detect potential through an insulated
 wire not supplying any devices, is extremely helpful; they cost
 about US$ 10 at Radio Shack.

 You should have a voltage detector - to check that the wires are
 dead before doing work on them.  Neon-bulb version are cheap ($2-3)
 and work well.  If you get more serious, a "audible alarm" type is
 good for tracing circuits without a helper.  (Though I've been known
 to lock the drill on, and hit breakers until the scream stops ;-)

 For running wires through existing walls, you need fish tape.
 Often, two tapes are needed, though sometimes, a bent hanger or
 a length of thin chain will suffice.  Fish tapes can be rented.

 Electrical tape.  Lots of it ;-)  Seriously, a good and competent
 wiring job will need very little tape.  The tape is useful for
 wrapping dicy insulation in repair work.  Another use is to wrap 
 around the body of outlets and switches to cover the termination
 screws - I don't do this, but drywall contractors prefer it (to
 prevent explosions when the drywall knife collides with a live outlet
 that has no cover plate).

Subject: What is UL listing?

 The UL stands for "Underwriters Laboratory".  It used to be
 an Insurance Industry organization, but now it is independent
 and non-profit.  It tests electrical components and equipment
 for potential hazards.  When something is UL-listed, that means
 that the UL has tested the device, and it meets their requirements
 for safety - ie: fire or shock hazard.  It doesn't necessarily
 mean that the device actually does what it's supposed to, just
 that it probably won't kill you.

 The UL does not have power of law in the U.S. -- you are
 permitted to buy and install non-UL-listed devices.  However,
 insurance policies sometimes have clauses in them that will
 limit their liability in case of a claim made in response to
 the failure of a non-UL-listed device.  Furthermore, in
 many situations the NEC will require that a wiring component
 used for a specific purpose is UL-listed for that purpose.
 Indirectly, this means that certain parts of your wiring
 must be UL-listed before an inspector will approve it and/or
 occupancy permits issued.
 
Subject: What is CSA approval?

 Every electrical device or component must be certified by the
 Canadian Standards Association before it can be sold in
 Canada.  Implicit in this is that all wiring must be done
 with CSA-approved materials.  They perform testing similar to
 the UL (a bit more stringent), except that CSA approval is
 required by law.

 Again, like the UL, if a fire was caused by non-CSA-approved
 equipment, your insurance company may not have to pay the
 claim.

 Note: strictly speaking, there usually is a legal way around the
 lack of a CSA sticker.  In some cases (eg: Ontario), a local hydro
 inspection prior to purchase, or prior to use, is acceptable.
 The hydro inspector will affix a "hydro sticker" to the unit, which
 is as good as CSA approval.  But it costs money - last I knew,
 $75 per unit inspected.

 ULC (Underwriters Laboratory of Canada) is an independent organization
 that, amongst other things, undertakes the quarterly inspection of
 manufacturer's to ensure continued compliance of UL Listed/Recognized
 products to Agency reports and safety standards. This work is done under
 contract to UL Inc (Follow-up Services Division). They are not
 a branch or subsidiary of UL.




Subject: Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?

 USA: The following three books were suggested by our readers

     Residential Wiring
     by Jeff Markell,
     Craftsman Books,
     Carlsbad CA for $18.25. ISBN 0-934041-19-9.

     Practical Electrical Wiring
     Residential, Farm and Industrial,  Based on the National
     Electrical Code    ANSI/NFPA 70
     Herbert P. Richter and W. Creighton Schwan
     McGraw-Hill Book Co.

     Wiring Simplified
     H. P. Richter and W. C. Schwan
     Park Publishing Co.
 
 Try to make sure that the book is based on the latest NEC
 revision.  Which is currently 1993.

 Canada: P.S. Knight authors and publishes a book called
 "Electrical Code Simplified".  There appears to be a version
 published specific to each province, and is very tied into the
 appropriate provincial code.  It focuses on residential wiring,
 and is indispensible for Canadian DIY'ers.  It is better to get
 this book than the CEC unless you do a lot of wiring (or answer
 questions on the net ;-).

 It is updated each time the provincial codes are.  This book is
 available at all DIY and hardware stores for less than C$10.

Subject: Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?

 Most jurisdictions require that you obtain a permit and
 inspections of any wiring that is done.  Amongst other more
 mundane bureaucratic reasons (like insurance companies not
 liking to have to pay claims), a permit and inspections
 provides some assurance that you, your family, your neighbors
 or subsequent owners of your home don't get killed or lose
 their homes one night due to a sloppy wiring job.

 Most jurisdictions have the power to order you to vacate your
 home, or order you to tear out any wiring done without a
 permit.  California, for instance, is particularly nasty about
 this.

 If fire starts in your home, and un-inspected wiring is at
 fault, insurance companies will often refuse to pay the damage
 claims.

 In general, the process goes like this:
  - you apply to your local inspections office or building
    department for a permit.  You should have a sketch or
    detailed drawing of what you plan on doing.  This is
    a good time to ask questions on any things you're not
    sure of.  If you're doing major work, they may impose
    special conditions on you, require loading
    calculations and ask other questions.  At this point
    they will tell you which inspections you will need.
  - If you're installing a main panel, you will need to
    have the panel and service connections inspected
    before your power utility will provide a connection.
    This is sometimes done by the local power authority
    rather than the usual inspectors.
  - After installing the boxes and wiring, but before
    the insulation/walls go up, you will need a
    "rough-in" inspection.
  - After the walls are up, and the wiring is complete,
    you will need a "final inspection".

Subject: My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
 Do I have to upgrade?

 In general, there is no requirement to upgrade older dwellings,
 though there are some exceptions (ie: smoke detectors in some
 cases).  However, any new work must be done according to the
 latest electrical code.  Also, if you do ``major'' work, you
 may be required to upgrade certain existing portions or all
 of your system.  Check with your local electrical inspector.

Subject: A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240

 One thing where things might get a bit confusing is the
 different numbers people bandy about for the voltage of
 a circuit.  One person might talk about 110V, another 117V
 or another 120V.  These are all, in fact, exactly the same
 thing...  In North America the utility companies are required
 to supply a split-phase 240 volt (+-5%) feed to your house.
 This works out as two 120V +- 5% legs.  Additionally, since there
 are resistive voltage drops in the house wiring, it's not
 unreasonable to find 120V has dropped to 110V or 240V has dropped
 to 220V by the time the power reaches a wall outlet.  Especially
 at the end of an extension cord or long circuit run.  For a number
 of reasons, some historical, some simple personal orneryness,
 different people choose call them by slightly different numbers.
 This FAQ has chosen to be consistent with calling them "110V" and
 "220V", except when actually saying what the measured voltage will
 be.  Confusing?  A bit.  Just ignore it.

 One thing that might make this a little more understandable
 is that the nameplates on equipment ofen show the lower (ie: 110V
 instead of 120V) value.  What this implies is that the device
 is designed to operate properly when the voltage drops that
 low.

 208V is *not* the same as 240V.  208V is the voltage between
 phases of a 3-phase "Y" circuit that is 120V from neutral to any
 hot.   480V is the voltage between phases of a 3-phase "Y"
 circuit that's 277V from hot to neutral.

 In keeping with 110V versus 120V strangeness, motors intended
 to run on 480V three phase are often labelled as 440V...

Subject: What does an electrical service look like?

 There are logically four wires involved with supplying the
 main panel with power.  Three of them will come from the utility
 pole, and a fourth (bare) wire comes from elsewhere.

  The bare wire is connected to one or more long metal bars pounded
  into the ground, or to a wire buried in the foundation, or sometimes
  to the water supply pipe (has to be metal, continuous to where
 the main water pipe entering the house.  Watch out for galvanic
 action conductivity "breaks" (often between copper and iron pipe).
 This is the "grounding conductor".  It is there to make sure that
 the third prong on your outlets is connected to ground.  This wire
 normally carries no current.

 One of the other wires will be white (or black with white or
 yellow stripes, or sometimes simply black).  It is the neutral wire.
 It is connected to the "centre tap" (CEC; "center tap" in the
 NEC ;-) of the distribution transformer supplying the power.  It
 is connected to the grounding conductor in only one place (often
 inside the panel).  The neutral and ground should not be connected
 anywhere else.  Otherwise, weird and/or dangerous things may happen.

 Furthermore, there should only be one grounding system in
 a home.  Some codes require more than one grounding electrode.
 These will be connected together, or connected to the neutral
 at a common point - still one grounding system.  Adding additional
 grounding electrodes connected to other portions of the house
 wiring is unsafe and contrary to code.

 If you add a subpanel, the ground and neutral are usually
 brought as separate conductors from the main panel, and are
 not connected together in the subpanel (ie: still only one
 neutral-ground connection).  However, in some situations 
 (certain categories of separate buildings) you actually do
 have to provide a second grounding electrode - consult your
 inspector.

 The other two wires will usually be black, and are the "hot"
 wires.  They are attached to the distribution transformer as
 well.

 The two black wires are 180 degrees out of phase with each
 other.  This means if you connect something to both hot wires,
 the voltage will be 220 volts.  If you connect something to the
 white and either of the two blacks you will get 110V.

 Some panels seem to only have three wires coming into them.
 This is either because the neutral and ground are connected
 together at a different point (eg: the meter or pole) and one
 wire is doing dual-duty as both neutral and ground, or in some
 rare occasions, the service has only one hot wire (110V only
 service).

Subject: What is a circuit?

 Inside the panel, connections are made to the incoming wires.
 These connections are then used to supply power to selected
 portions of the home.  There are three different combinations:
  1) one hot, one neutral, and ground: 110V circuit.
  2) two hots, no neutral, and ground: 220V circuit.
  3) two hots, neutral, and ground: 220V circuit + neutral,
     and/or two 110V circuits with a common neutral.

 (1) is used for most circuits supplying receptacles and
 lighting within your house.  (3) is usually used for supplying
 power to major appliances such as stoves, and dryers - they
 often have need for both 220V and 110V, or for bringing several
 circuits from the panel box to a distribution point.  (2) is
 usually for special 220V motor circuits, electric heaters, or
 air conditioners.

 [Note: In the US, the NEC frequently permits a circuit similar
 to (2) be used for stoves and dryers - namely, that there
 are two hot wires, and a wire that does dual duty as neutral
 and ground, and is connected to the frame as well as providing
 the neutral for 110V purposes - three prong plugs instead
 of four (*only* for stoves/dryers connected to the main panel.
 When connected to most sub-panels, 4 prong plugs and receptacles
 are required).  In our not-so-humble opinion this is crazy, but
 the NFPA claims that this practice was re-evaluated for the 1992 NEC,
 and found to be safe.  Check your local codes, or inquire as to
 local practice -- there are restrictions on when this is
 permissible.]

 (1) is usually wired with three conductor wire: black for hot,
 white for neutral, and bare for grounding.

 (2) and (3) have one hot wire coloured red, the other black, a
 bare wire for grounding, and in (3) a white wire for neutral.

 You will sometimes see (2) wired with just a black, white and ground
 wire.  Since the white is "hot" in this case, both the NEC and CEC
 requires that the white wire be "permanently marked" at the ends
 to indicate that it is a live wire.  Usually done with paint, nail
 polish or sometimes electrical tape.

 Each circuit is attached to the main wires coming into the
 panel through a circuit breaker or fuse.

 There are, in a few locales, circuits that look like (1), (2)
 or (3) except that they have two bare ground wires.  Some places
 require this for hot tubs and the like (one ground is "frame ground",
 the other attaches to the motor).  This may or may not be an
 alternative to GFCI protection.

Subject: "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".

 According to the terminology in the CEC and NEC, the
 "grounding" conductor is for the safety ground, i.e., the green
 or bare or green with a yellow stripe wire.  The word "neutral"
 is reserved for the white when you have a circuit with more than 
 one "hot" wire.  Since the white wire is connected to neutral and
 the grounding conductor inside the panel, the proper term is
 "grounded conductor".  However, the potential confusion between
 "grounded conductor" and "grounding conductor" can lead to
 potentially lethal mistakes - you should never use the bare wire
 as a "grounded conductor" or white wire as the "grounding conductor",
 even though they are connected together in the panel.

 [But not in subpanels - subpanels are fed neutral and ground
 separately from the main panel.  Usually.]

 Note: do not tape, colour or substitute other colour wires for the
 safety grounding conductor.

 In the trade, and in common usage, the word "neutral" is used
 for "grounded conductor".  This FAQ uses "neutral" simply to
 avoid potential confusion.  We recommend that you use "neutral"
 too.  Thus the white wire is always (except in some light
 switch applications) neutral.  Not ground.

Subject: What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?

 Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power
 to a circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels.  For
 example, if your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should
 "trip", protecting the wiring in the walls from melting.  As
 such, fuses and breakers are primarily intended to protect the
 wiring -- UL or CSA approval supposedly indicates that the
 equipment itself won't cause a fire.

 Fuses contain a narrow strip of metal which is designed to melt
 (safely) when the current exceeds the rated value, thereby
 interrupting the power to the circuit.  Fuses trip relatively
 fast.  Which can sometimes be a problem with motors which have
 large startup current surges.  For motor circuits, you can use
 a "time-delay" fuse (one brand is "fusetron") which will avoid
 tripping on momentary overloads.  A fusetron looks like a
 spring-loaded fuse.  A fuse can only trip once, then it must be
 replaced.

 Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices.  They
 usually consist of one spring loaded contact which is latched
 into position against another contact.  When the current flow
 through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip
 heats up and bends.  By bending it "trips" the latch, and the
 spring pulls the contacts apart.  Circuit breakers behave
 similarly to fusetrons - that is, they tend to take longer to
 trip at moderate overloads than ordinary fuses.  With high
 overloads, they trip quickly.  Breakers can be reset a finite
 number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown
 when the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which
 damages the contacts.  Thus, breakers should not be used in
 place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
 purpose.

 Neither fuses nor breakers "limit" the current per se.  A dead
 short on a circuit can cause hundreds or sometimes even
 thousands of amperes to flow for a short period of time, which
 can often cause severe damage.

Subject: Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?

 Statistics show that fuse panels have a significantly higher
 risk of causing a fire than breaker panels.  This is usually
 due to the fuse being loosely screwed in, or the contacts
 corroding and heating up over time, or the wrong size fuse
 being installed, or the proverbial "replace the fuse with a
 penny" trick.

 Since breakers are more permanently installed, and have better
 connection mechanisms, the risk of fire is considerably less.

 Fuses are prone to explode under extremely high overload.  When
 a fuse explodes, the metallic vapor cloud becomes a conducting
 path.  Result?  From complete meltdown of the electrical panel,
 melted service wiring, through fires in the electrical
 distribution transformer and having your house burn down.
 [This author has seen it happen.]  Breakers won't do this.

 Many jurisdictions, particularly in Canada, no longer permit
 fuse panels in new installations.  The NEC does permit new
 fuse panels in some rare circumstances (requiring the special
 inserts to "key" the fuseholder to specific size fuses)

 Some devices, notably certain large air conditioners, require fuse
 protection in addition to the breaker at the panel.  The fuse
 is there to protect the motor windings from overload.  Check the
 labeling on the unit.  This is usually only on large permanently
 installed motors.  The installation instructions will tell you
 if you need one.

Subject: What size wire should I use?

 For a 20 amp circuit, use 12 gauge wire.  For a 15 amp circuit,
 you can use 14 gauge wire (in most locales).  For a long run,
 though, you should use the next larger size wire, to avoid
 voltage drops.  12 gauge is only slightly more expensive than
 14 gauge, though it's stiffer and harder to work with.

 Here's a quick table for normal situations.  Go up a size for
 more than 100 foot runs, when the cable is in conduit, or
 ganged with other wires in a place where they can't dissipate
 heat easily:

  Gauge  Amps
  14  15
  12  20
  10  30
  8  40
  6  65
 
 We don't list bigger sizes because it starts getting very dependent
 on the application and precise wire type.

Subject: Where do these numbers come from?

 There are two considerations, voltage drop and heat buildup.
 The smaller the wire is, the higher the resistance is.  When
 the resistance is higher, the wire heats up more, and there is
 more voltage drop in the wiring.  The former is why you need
 higher-temperature insulation and/or bigger wires for use in
 conduit; the latter is why you should use larger wire for long
 runs.

 Neither effect is very significant over very short distances.
 There are some very specific exceptions, where use of smaller
 wire is allowed.  The obvious one is the line cord on most
 lamps.  Don't try this unless you're certain that your use fits
 one of those exceptions; you can never go wrong by using larger
 wire.

Subject: What does "14-2" mean?

 This is used to describe the size and quantity of conductors
 in a cable.  The first number specifies the gauge.  The second
 the number of current carrying conductors in the wire - but
 remember there's usually an extra ground wire.  "14-2" means
 14 gauge, two insulated current carrying wires, plus bare ground.

 -2 wire usually has a black, white and bare ground wire.  Sometimes
 the white is red instead for 220V circuits without neutral.  In
 the latter case, the sheath is usually red too.

 -3 wire usually has a black, red, white and bare ground wire.
 Usually carrying 220V with neutral.

Subject: What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector"?  How are they
 used?

 A wire nut is a cone shaped threaded plastic thingummy that's used
 to connect wires together.  "Marrette" or "Marr connector"
 are trade names.  You'll usually use a lot of them in DIY wiring.

 In essence, you strip the end of the wires about an inch, twist them
 together, then twist the wirenut on.

 Though some wirenuts advertise that you don't need to twist the
 wire, do it anyways - it's more mechanically and electrically
 secure.

 There are many different sizes of wire nut.  You should check
 that the wire nut you're using is the correct size for the
 quantity and sizes of wire you're connecting together.

 Don't just gimble the wires together with a pair of pliers or
 your fingers.  Use a pair of blunt nose ("linesman") pliers,
 and carefully twist the wires tightly and neatly.  Sometimes
 it's a good idea to trim the resulting end to make sure it
 goes in the wirenut properly.

 Some people wrap the "open" end of the wirenut with electrical
 tape.  This is probably not a good idea - the inspector may
 tear it off during an inspection.  It's usually done because
 a bit of bare wire is exposed outside the wire nut - instead
 of taping it, the connection should be redone.

Subject: What is a GFI/GFCI?

 A GFCI is a ``ground-fault circuit interrupter''.  It measures
 the current current flowing through the hot wire and the
 neutral wire.  If they differ by more than a few milliamps, the
 presumption is that current is leaking to ground via some other
 path.  This may be because of a short circuit to the chassis of
 an appliance, or to the ground lead, or through a person.  Any
 of these situations is hazardous, so the GFCI trips, breaking
 the circuit.

 GFCIs do not protect against all kinds of electric shocks.  If,
 for example, you simultaneously touched the hot and neutral
 leads of a circuit, and no part of you was grounded, a GFCI
 wouldn't help.  All of the current that passed from the hot
 lead into you would return via the neutral lead, keeping the
 GFCI happy.

 The two pairs of connections on a GFCI outlet are not symmetric.
 One is labeled LOAD; the other, LINE.  The incoming power feed
 *must* be connected to the LINE side, or the outlet will not be
 protected.  The LOAD side can be used to protect all devices
 downstream from it.  Thus, a whole string of outlets can be
 covered by a single GFCI outlet.

Subject: Where should GFCIs be used?

 The NEC mandates GFCIs for 110V, 15A or 20A single phase
 outlets, in bathrooms, kitchens within 6' of the sink, wet-bar
 sinks, roof outlets, garages, unfinished basements or crawl spaces,
 outdoors, near a pool, or just about anywhere else where you're likely
 to encounter water or dampness.  There are exceptions for inaccessible
 outlets, those dedicated to appliances ``occupying fixed space'',
 typically refrigerators and freezers, and for sump pumps and
 laundry appliances.

 The NEC now requires that if your replace an outlet in a
 location now requiring GFCI, you must install GFCI protection.
 Note in particular - kitchen and bathroom outlets.

 When using the "fixed appliance" rule for avoiding GFCI outlets,
 single outlet receptacles must be used for single appliances,
 duplex receptacles may be used for two appliances.

 The CEC does not mandate as many GFCIs.  In particular, there
 is no requirement to protect kitchen outlets, or most garage or
 basement outlets.  Basement outlets must be protected if you
 have a dirt floor, garage outlets if they're near the door to
 outside.  Bathrooms and most exterior outlets must have GFCIs,
 as do pools systems and jacuzzi or whirlpool pumps.

 There are many rules about GFCIs with pools and so on.  This
 is outside of our expertise, so we're not covering it in
 detail.  See your inspector.

 When replacing an outlet, it must now be GFCI-protected if
 such would now be required for a new installation.  That is,
 a kitchen outlet installed per the 1984 code need not have
 been protected, but if that outlet is ever replaced, GFCI
 protection must now be added (under NEC).  This is explicit
 in the 1993 NEC, and inspector-imposed in Canada.

 Even if you are not required to have GFCI protection, you may
 want to consider installing it anyway.  Unless you need a GFCI
 breaker (see below), the cost is low.  In the U.S., GFCI
 outlets can cost as little as US$8.  (Costs are a bit higher in
 Canada:  C$12.)  Evaluate your own risk factors.  Does your
 finished basement ever get wet?  Do you have small children?
 Do you use your garage outlets to power outdoor tools?  Does
 water or melted snow ever puddle inside your garage?

Subject: Where shouldn't I use a GFCI?

 GFCIs are generally not used on circuits that (a) don't pose a
 safety risk, and (b) are used to power equipment that must run
 unattended for long periods of time.  Refrigerators, freezers,
 and sump pumps are good examples.  The rationale is that GFCIs
 are sometimes prone to nuisance trips.  Some people claim that
 the inductive delay in motor windings can cause a momentary
 current imbalance, tripping the GFCI.  Note, though, that most
 GFCI trips are real; if you're getting a lot of trips for no
 apparent reason, you'd be well-advised to check your wiring
 before deciding that the GFCI is broken or useless.

Subject: What is the difference between a GFCI outlet and a GFCI breaker?

 For most situations, you can use either a GFCI outlet as the
 first device on the circuit, or you can install a breaker with
 a built-in GFCI.  The former is generally preferred, since GFCI
 breakers are quite expensive.  For example, an ordinary GE
 breaker costs ~US$5; the GFCI model costs ~US$35.  There is one
 major exception:  if you need to protect a ``multi-wire branch
 circuit'' (two or more circuits sharing a common neutral wire),
 such as a Canadian-style kitchen circuit, you'll need a
 multi-pole GFCI breaker.  Unfortunately, these are expensive;
 the cost can range into the hundreds of dollars, depending on
 what brand of panel box you have.  But if you must protect such
 a circuit (say, for a pool heater), you have no choice.

 One more caveat -- GFCI outlets are bulky.  You may want to use
 an oversize box when installing them.  On second thought, use
 large (actually deep) boxes everywhere.  You'll thank yourself
 for it.

 Incidentally, if you're installing a GFCI to ensure that one
 specific outlet is protected (such as a bathroom), you don't
 really have to go to all of the trouble to find the first
 outlet in the circuit, you could simply find the first outlet
 in the bathroom, and not GFCI anything upstream of it.  But
 protecting the whole circuit is preferred.

 When you install a GFCI, it's a good idea to use the little
 "ground fault protected" stickers that come with it and mark
 the outlets downstream of the GFCI.  You can figure out which
 outlets are "downstream", simply by tripping the GFCI with the
 test button and see which outlets are dead.

 Note that the labels are mandatory for GFCI-protected-but-ungrounded
 three prong outlets according to the NEC.

Subject: What's the purpose of the ground prong on an outlet, then?

 Apart from their use in electronics, which we won't comment on,
 and for certain fluorescent lights (they won't turn on without
 a good ground connection), they're intended to guard against
 insulation failures within the device.  Generally, the case of
 the appliance is connected to the ground lead.  If there's an
 insulation failure that shorts the hot lead to the case, the
 ground lead conducts the electricity away safely (and possibly
 trips the circuit breaker in the process).  If the case is not
 grounded and such a short occurs, the case is live -- and if
 you touch it while you're grounded, you'll get zapped.  Of
 course, if the circuit is GFCI-protected, it will be a very
 tiny zap -- which is why you can use GFCIs to replace
 ungrounded outlets (both NEC and CEC).

 There are some appliances that should *never* be grounded.  In
 particular, that applies to toasters and anything else with
 exposed conductors.  Consider:  if you touch the heating
 electrode in a toaster, and you're not grounded, nothing will
 happen.  If you're slightly grounded, you'll get a small shock;
 the resistance will be too high.  But if the case were
 grounded, and you were holding it, you'd be the perfect path to
 ground...

Subject: Why is one prong wider than the other?  Polarization

 Nowadays, many two-prong devices have one prong wider than the
 other.  This is so that the device could rely (not guaranteed!)
 on one specific wire being neutral, and the other hot.
 This is particularly advantageous in light fixtures, where the
 the shell should neutral (safety), or other devices which want to
 have an approximate ground reference (ie: some radios).

 Most 2-prong extension cords have wide prongs too.

 This requires that you wire your outlets and plugs the right
 way around.  You want the wide prong to be neutral, and the
 narrow one hot.  Most outlets have a darker metal for the
 hot screw, and lighter coloured screw for the neutral.
 If not, you can usually figure out which is which by which
 prong the terminating screw connects to.

Subject: How do I convert two prong receptacles to three prong?

 Older homes frequently have two-prong receptacles instead
 of the more modern three.  These receptacles have no safety
 ground, and the cabling usually has no ground wire.  Neither
 the NEC or CEC permits installing new 2 prong receptacles anymore.

 There are several different approaches to solving this:
     1) If the wiring is done through conduit or BX, and the
        conduit is continuous back to the panel, you can connect
        the third prong of a new receptacle to the receptacle
        box.  NEC mainly - CEC frowns on this practice.
     2) If there is a copper cold water pipe going nearby, and
        it's continuous to the main house ground point, you can
        run a conductor to it from the third prong.
        NEC: this can only be done if the point of attachment
        is within 5 feet of where the pipe enters the ground.
     3) Run a ground conductor back to the main panel.
     4) Easiest: install a GFCI receptacle.  The ground lug
        should not be connected to anything, but the GFCI
        protection itself will serve instead.  The GFCI
        will also protect downstream (possibly also two prong
        outlets).  If you do this to protect downstream outlets,
        the grounds must not be connected together.  Since it
        wouldn't be connected to a real ground, a wiring fault
        could energize the cases of 3 prong devices connected
        to other outlets.  Be sure, though, that there aren't
        indirect ground plug connections, such as via the sheath
        on BX cable.

 The CEC permits you to replace a two prong receptacle with a three
 prong if you fill the U ground with a non-conducting goop.
 Like caulking compound.  This is not permitted in the NEC.

 The NEC requires that three prong receptacles without ground
 that are protected by GFCI must be labelled as such.

 See the next section about computers on GFCI-protected groundless
 outlets.

Subject: Surges, spikes, zaps, grounding and your electronics (NEW)

 Theoretically, the power coming into your house is a perfect
 AC sine wave.  It is usually quite close.  But occasionally,
 it won't be.  Lightning strikes and other events will affect
 the power.  These usually fall into two general categories: very
 high voltage spikes (often into 1000s of volts, but usually
 only a few microseconds in length) or surges (longer duration,
 but usually much lower voltage).

 Most of your electrical equipment, motors, transformer-operated
 electronics, lights, etc., won't even notice these one-shot events.
 However, certain types of solid-state electronics, particularly
 computers with switching power supplies and MOS semiconductors,
 can be damaged by these occurances.  For example, a spike can
 "punch a hole" through an insulating layer in a MOS device (such
 as that several hundred dollar 386 CPU), thereby destroying it.

 The traditional approach to protecting your electronics is to use
 "surge suppressors" or "line filters".  These are usually devices
 that you plug in between the outlet and your electronics.

 Roughly speaking, surge suppressors work by detecting overvoltages,
 and shorting them out.  Think of them as voltage limiters.  Line
 filters usually use frequency-dependent circuits (inductors, capacitors
 etc.) to "tune out" undesirable spikes - preventing them from reaching
 your electronics.

 So, you should consider using suppressors or filters on your sensitive
 equipment.

 These devices come in a very wide price range.  From a couple
 of dollars to several hundred.  We believe that you can protect
 your equipment from the vast majority of power problems by selecting
 devices in the $20-50 range.

 A word about grounding: most suppressors and EFI filters require real
 grounds.  Any that don't are next to useless.

 For example, most surge suppressors use MOVs (metal oxide varistors)
 to "clamp" overvoltages.  Yes, you can have a suppressor that only
 has a MOV between neutral and hot to combat differential-mode voltage
 excursions, but that isn't enough.  You need common-mode protection
 too.  Good suppressors should have 3 MOVs, one between each pair of wires.
 Which means you should have a good solid ground.  Eg: a solidly connected
 14ga wire back to the panel.  Not rusty BX armour or galvanized pipe
 with condensation turning the copper connection green.

 Without a ground, a surge or spike is free to "lift" your entire electronics
 system well away from ground.  Which is ideal for blowing out interface
 electronics for printer ports etc.

 Secondly, static electricity is one of the major enemies of electronics.
 Having good frame grounds is one way of protecting against static zaps.

 If you're in the situation of wanting to install computer equipment
 on two wire groundless circuits take note:
 
 Adding a GFCI outlet to the circuit makes the circuit safe for you.
 But it doesn't make it safe for your equipment - you need a ground to
 make surge suppressors or line filters effective.

Subject: Are you sure about GFCIs and ungrounded outlets?
 Should the test button work?

 The NEC, section 210-7(d), and CEC, section 26-700(9), are quite
 explicit that GFCIs are a legal substitute for a grounded outlet
 in an existing installation where there is no ground available in
 the outlet box.

 But your local codes may vary.  As for the TEST button -- there's
 a resistor connecting the LOAD side of the hot wire to the LINE
 side of the neutral wire when you press the TEST button.  Current
 through this resistor shows up as an imbalance, and trips the GFCI.
 This is a simple, passive, and reliable test, and doesn't require
 a real ground to work.  If your GFCI does not trip when you press
 the TEST button, it is very probably defective or miswired.  Again:
 if the test button doesn't work, something's broken, and potentially
 dangerous.  The problem should be corrected immediately.

 The instructions that come with some GFCIs specify that the ground
 wire must be connected.  We do not know why they say this.  The
 causes may be as mundane as an old instruction sheet, or with the
 formalities of UL or CSA listing -- perhaps the device was never
 tested without the ground wire being connected.  On the other hand,
 UL or CSA approval should only have been granted if the device
 behaves properly in *all* listed applications, including ungrounded
 outlet replacement.  (One of us called Leviton; their GFCIs are
 labeled for installation on grounded circuits only.  The technician
 was surprised to see that; he agreed that the NEC does not require
 it, and promised to investigate.)

--
Look on the bright side - at least the PC's reached gender parity!
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Latest psroff: FTP://ftp.uunet.ca/distrib/chris_lewis/psroff3.0pl17/*


-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Archive-name: electrical-wiring/part2
Last-modified: Thu Dec  2 02:22:21 EST 1993

   Copyright 1991, 1992, 1993
        Chris Lewis and Steven Bellovin

  Redistribution for profit, or in altered content/format
  prohibited without permission of the authors.

Subject: What kind of outlets do I need in a kitchen?

 The NEC requires at least two 20 amp ``small appliance
 circuits'' for kitchen counters.  The CEC requires split-duplex
 receptacles.  Outlets must be installed such that no point is more
 than 24" (NEC) (900 mm CEC) from an outlet.  Every counter wider
 than 12" (NEC) or 300 mm (CEC) must have at least one outlet.
 The circuit these outlets are on may not feed any outlets except
 in the kitchen, pantry, or dining room.  Furthermore, these circuits
 are in addition to any required for refrigerators, stoves, microwaves,
 lighting, etc.  Non-dedicated outlets within 6' of a sink *must* be
 protected by a GFCI (NEC only).

 Split duplex receptacles are fed with a 220V circuit.  The tab
 is broken on the hot side of the outlet, and one hot goes to
 the upper outlet, and the other hot goes to the lower outlet.
 The neutral connects to both outlets through one screw.  When
 "carrying through" to another outlet, the neutral must be
 pigtailed, such that removing the outlet, or having the neutral
 connection fall off doesn't cause the neutral to disconnect
 from downstream outlets.

Subject: Where must outlets and switches be in bathrooms?

 There must be at least one outlet in each bathroom, adjacent to
 the sink, in addition to any outlet that may be incorporated in
 the light fixture.  All such outlets *must* be GFCI-protected.

 The NEC says that switches may not be installed inside bathtubs
 or showers.  The CEC says that switches may not be installed
 "within reach" of bathtubs or showers (consult an inspector
 if you can't make it at least four feet).

Subject: General outlet placement rules/line capacities (NEW)

 We paraphrase CEC 26-702 (NEC: 210-52 through 210-63)

 Note: In laying out receptacle outlets, consideration shall be given
 to the placement of electrical baseboards, hot air registers, hot
 water or steam registers, with a view of eliminating cords having to
 pass over hot or conductive surfaces wherever possible.

 NEC:  You're not allowed to put outlets over electric baseboards.
 That, coupled with the spacing requirements, more or less mandates
 the use of baseboards with integral outlets.  Note that such outlets
 are fed by a different branch circuit than the heating elements.

 2. Except as otherwise required, receptacles shall be installed
 in the finished walls of every room or area, other than kitchens,
 bathrooms, hallways, laundry rooms, utility rooms or closests, so
 that no point along the floor line of any usable wall space is more
 than 1.8m (6') horizontally from a receptacle in that or an
 adjoining space, such distance being measured along the floor line
 of the wall spaces involved.

 Fixed dividers, counters, etc., are considered wall space.  Floor
 outlets do not satisfy the requirement unless they are ``near'' the
 wall.  Insofar as practical, outlets should be spaced equidistantly.

 3. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided in each enclosed
 area such as a balcony or porch that is not classified as a finished
 room or area.

 [NEC doesn't seem to have this rule.]

 4. The receptacles referred to in (2) and (3) shall be duplex
 receptacles or equivalent number of single receptacles.

 5. "Usable wall space" is defined as any wall space 900mm (3', NEC 2')
 or more in width, not to include doorways, areas occupied by a door
 when fully opened, windows which extend to the floor, fireplaces or
 other permanent installations that would limit the use of the wall
 space.

 6.  See kitchen counter requirements.  At least one duplex receptacle
 in eat-in dining area.

 [We don't think the latter part is in the NEC.  Also, the NEC says that
 the two 20-amp small appliance circuits can't go outside of the kitchen,
 dining room, pantry, etc., nor can they be used for anything else,
 except for things like clock outlets, stove accessory outlets, etc.]

 7. Receptacles shall not be mounted facing up in the work surfaces or
 counters of the kitchen or dining area.

 8. No point in a hallway within a dwelling unit shall be more than
 4.5m (15', NEC 10') from a duplex receptacle as measured by the shortest
 path which the supply cord of an appliance connected to the receptacle
 would follow without passing through an openning fitted with a door.
 (vacuum-cleaner rule).

 9. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided: in laundry
 room, utility room and any unfinshed basement area
 
 [NEC: see GFCI requirements.  There must be a dedicated 20 amp laundry
 receptacle, with no other outlets, plus an additional unfinished
 basement receptacle.  Any attic or crawl space with heating or air
 conditioning equipment must have a receptacle. (this is probably
 in the CEC too.)]

 10, 11, 12, 13:  See bathroom requirements, GFCI, washing machine
 outlet placement.

 14, 15. Outlets shall not be placed in ironing cabinets, cupboards,
 wall cabinets, nor in similar enclosures except where they're
 for specific non-heating appliances (including microwave) in
 the enclosure.

 [NEC: No such requirement.  Are you sure Steven?]

 16, 17. For each single-family dwelling, at least one duplex receptacle
 shall be installed outdoors to be readily available from ground level
 (see GFCI requirements).  Appendix B (additional notes) suggests front
 and back outlets to be controlled by an interior switch.

 [NEC:  One in front, one in back.  No discussion of them being switched.]

 18. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided for each car space
 in a garage or carport.

 [NEC:  For an attached garage, or detached garage with electric service --
 but there is no requirement that detached garages have power.  This remark
 is probably relevant to CEC as well.]

 19. For the purposes of this rule, all receptacles shall be of the
 grounding type, configuration 5-15R (standard 110V/15A 3 prong).

 20. Any receptacle that is part of a lighting fixture or appliance
 that is > 1.7m (5 feet) above the floor, or in cabinets or cupboards,
 is not counted in the above rules.

 21. Where a switched duplex outlet is used in lieu of a light outlet
 and fixture, the receptacle shall be considered one of the wall mounted
 receptacles required here.

 22. At least one duplex receptacle shall be provided for a central
 vacuum system if the ducting is installed.

 [NEC:  couldn't find an equivalent rule.]

 Capacities: Knight recommends no more than 10 outlets per circuit.
 Some US references talk about a limit of 12.  There appears to be a
 wattage/area/outlet count calculation somewhere in the NEC.  20A circuits
 may have different rules.
 
 It is open to considerable debate whether you should mix general lighting
 and outlets on individual circuits.  Knight recommends it.  Some netters
 don't.  I tend towards the former for load balancing reasons.

 NEC: There's a new rule on outdoor outlets.  If exposed to the weather,
 and if used for unattended equipment (pool filters, outdoor lighting,
 etc.), the outlet must still be weatherproof even when the device is
 plugged in.

Subject: What is Romex/NM/NMD?  What is BX?  When should I use each?

 Romex is a brand name for a type of plastic insulated wire.
 Sometimes called non-metallic sheath.  The formal name is NM.
 This is suitable for use in dry, protected areas (ie: inside
 stud walls, on the sides of joists etc.), that are not subject
 to mechanical damage or excessive heat.  Most newer homes are
 wired almost exclusively with NM wire.  There are several
 different categories of NM cable.

 BX cable -- technically known as armored cable or "AC" has a
 flexible aluminum or steel sheath over the conductors and is
 fairly resistant to damage.

 TECK cable is AC with an additional external thermoplastic
 sheath.
 
 Protection for cable in concealed locations: where NM or AC cable
 is run through studs, joists or similar wooden members, the outer
 surface of the cable must be kept at least 32mm/1.25" (CEC & NEC)
 from the edges of the wooden members, or the cable should be protected
 from mechanical injury.  This latter protection can take the form of
 metal plates (such as spare outlet box ends) or conduit.

 [Note: inspector-permitted practice in Canada suggests that armored
 cable, or flexible conduit can be used as the mechanical protection,
 but this is technically illegal.]

 Additional protection recommendations: [These are rules in the
 Canadian codes.  The 1993 NEC has many changes that bring
 it close to these rules.  These are reasonable answers to the
 vague "exposed to mechanical damage" in both the NEC and CEC.]

     - NM cable should be protected against mechanical damage
       where it passes through floors or on the surface of walls
       in exposed locations under 5 feet from the floor.
       Ie: use AC instead, flexible conduit, wooden guards etc.
     - Where cable is suspended, as in, connections to furnaces
       or water heaters, the wire should be protected.  Canadian
       practice is usually to install a junction or outlet
       box on the wall, and use a short length of AC cable
       or NM cable in flexible conduit to "jump" to the appliance.
       Stapling NM to a piece of lumber is also sometimes used.
     - Where NM cable is run in close proximity to heating
       ducts or pipe, heat transfer should be minimized by
       means of a 25mm/1" air space, or suitable insulation
       material (a wad of fiberglass).
     - NM cable shall be supported within 300mm/1' of every box
       or fitting, and at intervals of no more than 1.5m/5'.
       Holes in joists or studs are considered "supports".
       Some slack in the cable should be provided adjacent to
       each box.  [while fishing cable is technically in violation,
       it is permitted where "proper" support is impractical]
     - 2 conductor NM cable should never be stapled on edge.
       [Knight also insists on only one cable per staple, referring
       to the "workmanship" clause, but this seems more honoured
       in the breach...]
     - cable should never be buried in plaster, cement or
       similar finish, except were required by code [Ie: cable
       burial with shallow bedrock.].
     - cable should be protected where it runs behind baseboards.
     - Cable may not be run on the upper edge of ceiling joists
       or the lower edges of rafters where the headroom is more
       than 1m (39").

 Whenever BX cable is terminated at a box with a clamp, small
 plastic bushings must be inserted in the end of the cable to
 prevent the clamps forcing the sharp ends of the armor through
 the insulation.

 Whenever BX cable is buried in thermal insulation, 90C
 wire should be selected, but derated in current carrying
 capacity to 60C.

 BX is sometimes a good idea in a work shop unless covered by
 solid wall coverings.

 In places where damage is more likely (like on the back wall of
 a garage ;-), you may be required to use conduit, a
 UL- (or CSA-) approved metal pipe.  You use various types of
 fittings to join the pipe or provide entrance/exit for the
 wire.

 Service entrances frequently use a plastic conduit.

 In damp places (eg: buried wiring to outdoor lighting) you will
 need special wire (eg: CEC NMW90, NEC UF).  NMW90 looks like
 very heavy-duty NMD90.  You will usually need short lengths of
 conduit where the wire enters/exits the ground.  [See underground
 wiring section.]

  Thermoplastic sheath wire (such as NM, NMW etc.) should not be
  exposed to direct sunlight unless explicitly approved for that
  purpose.

 Many electrical codes do not permit the routing of wire through
 furnace ducts, including cold air return plenums constructed
 by metal sheeting enclosing joist spaces.   The reason for this
 is that if there's a fire, the ducting will spread toxic gasses
 from burning insulation very rapidly through the building.
 Teflon insulated wire is permitted in plenums in many areas.
 
  Canada appears to use similar wire designations to the US,
  except that Canadian wire designations usually include the
  temperature rating in Celsius.  Eg: "AC90" versus "AC".
 In the US, NM-B is 90 degrees celcius.

 NOTE: local codes vary.  This is one of the items that changes
 most often.  Eg: Chicago codes require conduit *everywhere*.
 There are very different requirements for mobile homes.
 Check your local codes, *especially* if you're doing anything
 that's the slightest out of the ordinary.

 Wire selection table (incomplete - the real tables are enormous,
 uncommon wire types or applications omitted)

 Condition   Type CEC NEC

 Exposed/Concealed dry  plastic NMD90 NM
     armor AC90 AC
      TECK90

 Exposed/Concealed damp  plastic NMD90 NMC
     armor ACWU90
      TECK90

 Exposed/Concealed wet  plastic NMWU90
     armor ACWU90
      TECK90
 
 Exposed to weather  plastic NMWU
      TW etc.
     armor TECK90
 
 Direct earth burial/  plastic NMWU* UF
 Service entrance   RWU
      TWU
     armor RA90
      TECK90
      ACWU90
 [* NMWU not for service entrance]

Subject: Should I use plastic or metal boxes?

 The NEC permits use of plastic boxes with non-metallic cable
 only.  The reasoning is simple -- with armored cable, the box
 itself provides ground conductor continuity.  U.S. plastic
 boxes don't use metal cable clamps.

 The CEC is slightly different.  The CEC never permits cable
 armor as a grounding conductor.  However, you must still
 provide ground continuity for metallic sheath.  The CEC also
 requires grounding of any metal cable clamps on plastic boxes.

 The advantage of plastic boxes is comparatively minor even for
 non-metallic sheathed cable -- you can avoid making one ground
 connection and they sometimes cost a little less.  On the other
 hand, plastic boxes are more vulnerable to impacts.  For
 exposed or shop wiring, metal boxes are probably better.

 Metal receptacle covers must be grounded, even on plastic
 boxes.  This may be achieved by use of a switch with ground
 connection.

Subject: Junction box positioning?

 A junction box is a box used only for connecting wires together.

 Junction boxes must be located in such a way that they're accessible
 later.  Ie: not buried under plaster.  Excessive use of junction
 boxes is often a sign of sloppy installation, and inspectors may
 get nasty.

Subject: Can I install a replacement light fixture?

 In general, one can replace fixtures freely, subject to a few
 caveats.  First, of course, one should check the amperage
 rating of the circuit.  If your heart is set on installing half
 a dozen 500 watt floodlights, you may need to run a new wire
 back to the panel box.  But there are some more subtle
 constraints as well.  For example, older house
 wiring doesn't have high-temperature insulation.  The excess
 heat generated by a ceiling-mounted lamp can and will cause the
 insulation to deteriorate and crack, with obvious bad results.
 Some newer fixtures are specifically marked for high
 temperature wire only.  (You may find, in fact, that your
 ceiling wiring already has this problem, in which case
 replacing any devices is a real adventure.)

 Other concerns include providing a suitable ground for some
 fluorescent fixtures, and making sure that the ceiling box and
 its mounting are strong enough to support the weight of a heavy
 chandelier or ceiling fan.  You may need to install a new box
 specifically listed for this purpose.  A 2x4 across the ceiling
 joists makes a good support.  Metal brackets are also available
 that can be fished into ceilings thru the junction box hole and
 mounted between the joists.

 There are special rules for recessed light fixtures such as
 "pot" lamps or heat lamps.  When these are installed in insulated
 ceilings, they can present a very substantial fire hazard.
 The CEC provides for the installation of pot lamps in insulated
 ceilings, provided that the fixture is boxed in a "coffin" (usually
 8'x16"x12" - made by making a pair of joists 12" high, and covering
 with plywood) that doesn't have any insulation.  (Yes, that's 8 *feet*
 long)

 NEC rules are somewhat less stringent.  They require at least 3"
 clearance between the fixture and any sort of thermal insulation.
 The rules also say that one should not obstruct free air movement,
 which means that a CEC-style ``coffin'' might be worthwhile.
 Presumably, that's up to the local inspector.  [The CEC doesn't
 actually mandate the coffin per-se, this seems to be an inspector
 requirement to make absolutely certain that the fixture can't get
 accidentally buried in insulation.  Ie: if you have insulation blown
 in later.]

 There are now fixtures that contain integral thermal cutouts and
 fairly large cases that can be buried directly in insulation.  They are
 usually limited to 75 watt bulbs, and are unfortunately, somewhat
 more expensive than the older types.  Before you use them, you should
 ensure that they have explicit UL or CSA approval for such uses.
 Follow the installation instructions carefully; the prescribed location
 for the sensor can vary.

 There does not yet appear to be a heat lamp fixture that is approved
 for use in insulation.  The "coffin" appears the only legal approach.

Subject: Noisy fluorescent fixtures, what do I do?

 Many fluorescent fixtures tend to buzz, objectionably so when used in
 residential (rather than warehouse or industrial) situations.  This
 tends to be the result of magnetic/physical resonances at the
 (low) frequencies that standard fixture ballasts operate.  You
 can eliminate this problem by switching to electronic ballasts,
 which operate at a higher (inaudible) frequency.  Unfortunately,
 these are quite expensive.

Subject: What does it mean when the lights brighten when a motor starts?

 This usually means that the neutral wire in the panel is
 loose.  Depending on the load balance, one hot wire may end up
 being more than 110V, and the other less than 110V, with
 respect to ground.  This is a very hazardous situation - it can
 destroy your electronic equipment, possibly start fires, and in
 some situations electrocute you (ie: some US jurisdictions
 require the stove frame connected to neutral).

 If this happens, contact your electrical authority immediately
 and have them come and check out the problem.

 Note: a brief (< 1 second) brightening is sometimes normal with
 lighting and motors on the same 220V with neutral circuit.  A
 loose main panel neutral will usually show increased brightness
 far longer than one second.  In case of doubt, get help.

Subject: What is 3 phase power?  Should I use it?  Can I get it in my house?

 Three phase power has three "hot" wires, 120 degrees out of
 phase with each other.  These are usually used for large motors
 because it is more "efficient", provides a bit more starting torque,
 and because the motors are simpler and hence cheaper.

 You're most likely to encounter a 3 phase circuit that shows
 110 volts between any hot and ground, and 208 volts between
 any two hots.  The latter shows the difference between a normal
 220V/110V common neutral circuit, which is 240 volts between the
 two hots.  There are 3 phase circuits with different voltages.

 Bringing in a 3 phase feed to your house is usually
 ridiculously expensive, or impossible.  If the equipment you
 want to run has a standard motor mount, it is *MUCH* cheaper to
 buy a new 110V or 220V motor for it.  In some cases it is
 possible to run 3 phase equipment on ordinary power if you have
 a "capacitor start" unit, or use a larger motor as a
 (auto-)generator.  These are tricky, but are a good solution if
 the motor is non-standard size, or too expensive or too big to
 replace.  The Taunton Press book ``The Small Shop'' has an
 article on how to do this if you must.

 Note that you lose any possible electrical efficiency by using
 such a converter.  The laws of thermodynamics guarantee that.

Subject: Is it better to run motors at 110 or 220?

 Theoretically, it doesn't make any difference.  However, there
 is a difference is the amount of power lost in the supply
 wiring.  All things being equal, a 110V motor will lose 4 times
 more power in the house wiring than a 220V motor.  This also
 means that the startup surge loss will be less, and the motor
 will get to speed quicker with 220V.  And in some circumstances,
 the smaller power loss will lead to longer motor life.

 This is usually irrelevant unless the supply wires are more
 than 50 feet long.

Subject: What is this nonsense about 3HP on 110V 15A circuits?

 It is a universal physical law that 1 HP is equal to 746
 watts.  Given heating loss, power factor and other inefficiencies,
 it is usually best to consider 1 HP is going to need 1000-1200
 watts.  A 110V 15A circuit can only deliver 1850 watts to a motor,
 so it cannot possibly be more than approximately 2 HP.  Given rational
 efficiency factors, 1.5HP is more like it.

 Some equipment manufacturers (Sears in particular, most router
 manufacturers in general ;-) advertise a HP rating that is far
 in excess of what is possible.  They are giving you a "stall
 horsepower" or similar.  That means the power is measured when
 the motor is just about to stop turning because of the load.
 What they don't mention is that if you kept it in that
| condition for more than a few seconds your motor will melt - the
| motor is drawing far more current than its continuous rating.

 When comparing motors, compare the continuous horsepower.  This
 should be on the motor nameplate.  If you can't find that figure,
 check the amperage rating, which is always present.

Subject: How should I wire my shop?

 As with any other kind of wiring, you need enough power for all
 devices that will be on simultaneously.  The code specifies
 that you should stay under 80% of the nominal capacity of the
 circuit.  For typical home shop use, this means one circuit for
 the major power tools, and possibly one for a dust collector or
 shop vac.  Use at least 12 gauge wire -- many power tools have
 big motors, with a big start-up surge.  If you can, use 20 amp
 breakers (NEC), though CEC requires standard 20A receptacles
 which means you'd have to "replug" all your equipment.  Lights
 should either be on a circuit of their own -- and not shared
 with circuits in the rest of the house -- or be on at least two
 separate circuits.  The idea is that you want to avoid a
 situation where a blade is still spinning at several thousand
 RPM, while you're groping in the dark for the OFF switch.

 Do install lots of outlets.  It's easier to install them in the
 beginning, when you don't have to cut into an existing cable.
 It's useful if at least two circuits are accessible at each
 point, so you can run a shop vac or a compressor at the same
 time as the tool you really want.  But use metal boxes and
 plates, and maybe even metal-sheathed cable; you may have
 objects flying around at high speeds if something goes a bit
 wrong.

 Note that some jurisdictions have a "no horizontal wiring"
 rule in workshops or other unfinished areas that are used
 for working.  What this means is that all wiring must be
 run along structural members.  Ie: stapled to studs.

 Other possible shop circuits include heater circuits, 220V
 circuits for some large tools, and air compressor circuits.
 Don't overload circuits, and don't use extension cords if you
 can help it, unless they're rated for high currents.  (A coiled
 extension cord is not as safe as a straight length of wire of
 the same gauge.  Also, the insulation won't withstand as much
 heat, and heat dissipation is the critical issue.)

 If your shop is located at some remove from your main panel,
 you should probably install a subpanel, and derive your shop
 wiring from it.  If you have young children, you may want to
 equip this panel with a cut-off switch, and possibly a lock.
 If you want to install individual switches to ``safe''
 particular circuits, make sure you get ones rated high enough.
 For example, ordinary light switches are not safely able to
 handle the start-up surge generated by a table saw.  Buy
 ``horsepower-rated'' switches instead.

 Finally, note that most home shops are in garages or unfinished
 basements; hence the NEC requirements for GFCIs apply.  And
 even if you ``know'' that you'd never use one of your shop
 outlets to run a lawn mower, the next owner of your house might
 have a different idea.

 Note: Fine Woodworking magazine often carries articles on shop
 wiring.  April 1992 is one place to start.

Subject: Doorbell/telephone/cable other service wiring hints.

 Auxiliary services, such as cable, telephone, doorbell, furnace
 control circuits etc. are generally considered to be "class 2"
 wiring by both the CEC and NEC.

 What this generally means is:

  1) class 2 and house power should not share conduit or
     termination boxes.
  2) class 2 and house power should be 12" apart in walls
     except where necessary.
  3) cross-over should be at 90 degrees.
 
 While the above may not be strictly necessary to the code, it
 is advantageous anyways - paralleling house power beside telephone
 lines tends to induce hum into the telephone.  Or could interfere
 with fancier furnace control systems.

 With telephone wiring, twisted pair can alleviate these problems,
 and there are new cable types that combine multiple services into
 one sheath.  Consult your inspector if you really want to violate
 the above recommendations.

Subject: Underground Wiring

 You will need to prepare a trench to specifications, use
 special wire, protect the wire with conduit or special plastic
 tubing and possibly lumber (don't use creosoted lumber, it rots
 thermoplastic insulation and acts as a catalyst in the corrosion
 of lead).  The transition from in-house to underground wire is
 generally via conduit.  All outdoor boxes must be specifically
 listed for the purpose, and contain the appropriate gaskets,
 fittings, etc.  If the location of the box is subject to immersion
 in water, a more serious style of water-proof box is needed.  And
 of course, don't forget the GFCIs.

 The required depths and other details vary from jurisdiction to
 jurisdiction, so we suggest you consult your inspector about
 your specific situation.

 A hint: buy a roll of bright yellow tape that says "buried power
 line" and bury it a few inches above where the wire has been placed.

Subject: Aluminum wiring

 During the 1970's, aluminum (instead of copper) wiring became
 quite popular and was extensively used.  Since that time,
 aluminum wiring has been implicated in a number of house fires,
 and most jurisdictions no longer permit it in new installations.
 We recommend, even if you're allowed to, that do not use it for new
 wiring.

 But don't panic if your house has aluminum wiring.  Aluminum
 wiring, when properly installed, can be just as safe as copper.
 Aluminum wiring is, however, very unforgiving of improper
 installation.  We will cover a bit of the theory behind potential
 problems, and what you can do to make your wiring safe.

 The main problem with aluminum wiring is a phenomenon known as
 "cold creep".  When aluminum wiring warms up, it expands.  When
 it cools down, it contracts.  Unlike copper, when aluminum goes
 through a number of warm/cool cycles it loses a bit of tightness each
 time.  To make the problem worse, aluminum oxidises, or corrodes
 when in contact with certain types of metal, so the resistance
 of the connection goes up.  Which causes it to heat up and corrode/
 oxidize still more.  Eventually the wire may start getting very hot,
 melt the insulation or fixture it's attached to, and possibly even
 cause a fire.

 Since people usually encounter aluminum wiring when they move
 into a house built during the 70's, we will cover basic points of
 safe aluminum wiring.  We suggest that, if you're considering purchasing
 a home with aluminum wiring, or have discovered it later, that you
 hire a licensed electrician or inspector to check over the wiring
 for the following things:

     1) Fixtures (eg: outlets and switches) directly attached to
        aluminum wiring should be rated for it.  The device will
        be stamped with "Al/Cu" or "CO/ALR".  The latter supersedes
        the former, but both are safe.   These fixtures are somewhat
        more expensive than the ordinary ones.

     2) Wires should be properly connected (at least 3/4 way around
        the screw in a clockwise direction).  Connections should be
        tight.  While repeated tightening of the screws can make the
        problem worse, during the inspection it would pay off to snug
        up each connection.

        Note that aluminum wiring is still often used for the
        main service entrance cable.  It should be inspected.

     3) "push-in" terminals are an extreme hazard with aluminum wire.
        Any connections using push-in terminals should be redone with
        the proper screw connections immediately.

     4) There should be no signs of overheating: darkened connections,
        melted insulation, or "baked" fixtures.  Any such damage should
        be repaired.
     
     5) Connections between aluminum and copper wire need to be
        handled specially.  Current Canadian codes require that the
        wire nut used must be specially marked for connecting
        aluminum to copper.  The NEC requires that the wire be
        connected together using special crimp devices, with an
        anti-oxidant grease.  The tools and materials for the latter
        are quite expensive - not practical to do it yourself unless
        you can rent the tool.

     6) Any non-rated receptacle can be connected to aluminum wiring
        by means of a short copper "pigtail".  See (5) above.
     
     7) Shows reasonable workmanship: neat wiring, properly stripped
        (not nicked) wire etc.
    
 If, when considering purchasing a home, an inspection of the wiring
 shows no problems or only one or two, we believe that you can consider
 the wiring safe.  If there are signs of problems in many places,
 we suggest you look elsewhere.  If the wrong receptacles are used,
 you can replace them with the proper type, or use pigtails - having
 this professionally done can range from $3 to $10 per receptacle/switch.
 You can do this yourself too.

Subject: I'm buying a house!  What should I do?

 Congratulations.  But...  It's generally a good idea to hire
 an inspector to look through the house for hidden gotchas.
 Not just for wiring, but plumbing and structural as well.  If an
 inspection of the wiring shows no problems or only one or two minor
 ones, we believe that you can consider the wiring safe (after any
 minor problems are fixed).  If there are signs of problems in many
 places, we suggest you look elsewhere.

 Here's some hints on what to look for:

 Obvious non-code wiring can include:

  - Zip cord wiring, either concealed or nailed to walls
  - Hot wiring on the identified (neutral) conductor without
    proper marking.
  - Ungrounded grounding outlets (except when downstream of
    a GFCI)
  - Splices hanging in mid-air (other than proper knob-and-tube)
  - Switched neutrals
  - Unsecured Romex swinging about like grapevines

 Certain wiring practices that are actually to code (or were at one
 time) sometimes reveal DIY wiring that may have hidden violations:

  - Switches that seem to control nothing (abandoned, perhaps
     not properly terminated wiring)
  - A wall switch that controls things that you think it
    shouldn't, for instance mysteriously removing power
    from lights or outlets in other rooms. 
  - Switches and outlets in bizarre locations
  - Great numbers of junction boxes without outlets or lamps
  - Junction boxes with great numbers of wires going into them
  - Wiring that passes through a closet instead of a wall or
    ceiling
  - Backwrapped grounding wires (ground wire wrapped around
    the incoming cable insulation outside the box).
  - A breaker or fuse for outside wiring that is near the bottom
    of the breaker panel or in an add-on fusebox.  The outdoor
    wiring may have been homeowner-installed after the house was
    built, and was not buried deep enough or was done with the
    wrong kind of wire.   

Subject: What is this weird stuff?  Old style wiring
 
 In the years since Edison "invented" electricity, several different
 wiring "styles" have come and gone.  When you buy an older home you
 may encounter some of this stuff.  This section describes the old 
 methods, and some of their idiosyncrasies.

 The oldest wiring system you're likely to encounter is called
 "knob and tube" (K&T).  It is made up of individual conductors with
 a cloth insulation.  The wires are run along side structural
 members (eg: joists or studs) using ceramic stand-offs (knobs).
 Wire is run through structural members using ceramic tubes.  Connections
 were made by twisting the wire together, soldering, and wrapping
 with tape.  Since the hot and neutral were run separately,
 the wiring tends to be rather confusing.  A neutral often runs
 down the centre of each room, with "taps" off to each fixture.
 The hot wire tended to run from one fixture to the next.  In some
 cases K&T isn't colour-coded, so the neutral is often the same
 colour as the hot wires.

 You'll see K&T in homes built as late as the 40's.

 Comments on K&T:

  - the people installing K&T were pretty paranoid about
    electricity, so the workmanship tends to be pretty good.
  - The wire, insulation and insulators tend to stand up
    very well.  Most K&T I've seen, for example, is in
    quite good condition.
  - No grounding.  Grounding is usually difficult to install.
  - boxes are small.  Receptacle replacement (particularly with
    GFCI) can be difficult.  No bushing on boxes either,
    so wiring changes need special attention to box entry.
  - Sometimes the neutral isn't balanced very well between
    separately hot circuits, so it is sometimes possible to
    overload the neutral without exceeding the fusing on
    any circuit.
  - In DC days it was common to fuse both sides, and no
    harm was done.  In fact, it was probably a Good Thing.
    The practise apparently carried over to K&T where
    you may find fused neutrals.  This is a very bad
    thing.
  - Building code does not usually permit insulation in
|    walls or ceilings that contains K&T.  Some jurisdictions
|    will allow it under some circumstances.
  - Connection to existing K&T from new circuits can be
    tricky.  Consult your inspector.
  - Modern wiring practice requires considerably more
    outlets to be installed than K&T systems did.
 
 Since K&T tends to be in pretty decent condition it generally isn't
 necessary to replace it simply because it's K&T.  What you should
 watch out for is renovations that have interfered with it and
 be cautious about circuit loading.  In many cases it's perfectly
 reasonable to leave existing K&T alone, and add new fixtures on
 new circuits using modern techniques.
 
 After K&T, they invented multi-conductor cable.  The first type
 you will see is roughly a cloth and varnish insulation.  It looks
 much like the romex cable of the last decade or two.  This stuff was
 used in the 40's and 50's.  Again, no grounding conductor.
 It was installed much like modern wiring.  Its major drawback
 is that this type of insulation embrittles.  We've seen whole
 systems where the insulation would fracture and fall off at
 a touch.  BX cable of the same vintage has similar problems.
 It is possible for the hot conductor to short out to the cable
 jacket.  Since the jacket is rusted, it no longer presents
 a low resistance return path for the current flow, but rather
 more acts like a resistance heater.  In extreme cases the
 cable jacket will become red hot without blowing the fuse or circuit
 breaker.  The best thing to do with old style BX is to replace
 it with modern cable whenever it's encountered and there's any
 hint of the sheath rusting.

 This stuff is very fragile, and becomes rather hazardous if
 the wires become bare.  This wiring should be left untouched as
 much as possible - whenever an opportunity arises, replace it.
 A simple receptacle or switch replacement can turn into a several
 hour long frustrating fight with electrical tape or heat-shrink
 tubing.

 After this wiring technique, the more modern romex was invented.
 It's almost a asphalt impregnated cloth.  Often a bit sticky.
 This stuff stands up reasonably well and doesn't present a hazard
 and is reasonably easy to work with.  It does not need to be
 replaced - it should be considered as safe as the "modern" stuff -
 thermoplastic insulation wire.  Just don't abuse it too much.

Subject: Where do I buy stuff?

 Try to find a proper electrical supply outlet near you.  Their
 prices will often be considerably better than chain hardware stores or
 DIY centres, have better quality materials, have wider variety
 including the "odd" stuff, and have people behind the counter that
 know what you're talking about.  Cultivate friendly knowledgeable
 sales people.  They'll give you much valuable information.

Subject: Copper wire characteristics table

 These are taken from the Amateur Radio Relay Handbook, 1985.

 AWG  dia    circ  open   cable  ft/lb   ohms/
      mils   mils  air A  Amp    bare    1000'

 10   101.9 10380    55    33    31.82   1.018
 12    80.8  6530    41    23    50.59   1.619
 14    64.1  4107    32    17    80.44   2.575

 We don't show specs for 8ga or larger because they're
 usually stranded.

 Mils are .001".  "open air A" is a continuous rating for
 a single conductor with insulation in open air.  "cable amp"
 is for in multiple conductor cables.  Disregard the amperage
 ratings for household use.

 To calculate voltage drop, plug in the values:
  
  V = DIR/1000'
 
 Where I is the amperage, R is from the ohms/1000' column
 above, and D is the total distance the current travels (don't
 forget to add the length of the neutral and hot together - ie:
 usually double cable length).  Design rules in the CEC call
 for a maximum voltage drop of 6% (7V on 120V circuit)
-- 
Look on the bright side - at least the PC's reached gender parity!
Chris Lewis; clewis@ferret.ocunix.on.ca; Phone: Canada 613 832-0541
Ferret list: ferret-request@ferret.ocunix.on.ca
Latest psroff: FTP://ftp.uunet.ca/distrib/chris_lewis/psroff3.0pl17/*


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